Urban issues and challenges

• urbanisation

  The process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in towns and cities. Rapid urbanisation is a feature of many LICs and NEEs.
• Mega-cities

  An urban area with a total population in excess of ten million people.
• Where is urbanisation happening fastest?

  poorer countries (LICs)
• What countries are more economically developed?

  HICs are more economically developed,

  e.g. UK, Japan and Germany.
• What are the rates of urban growth in HICs?

  HICs have very slow rates of urban growth, and many people desiring a better quality of life are moving away from overcrowded cities to rural areas and commute to cities, or work from home.
• At what speed are NEE's economically developing...

  NEEs are those where economic development is increasing rapidly, e.g. Brazil, China, Russia and India.
• What is rural-urban migration?

  the movement of people from the countryside to cities
• What is the rate of rural-urban migration affected by?

  push and pull factors
• push factors

  a factor that causes people to leave their homelands and migrate to another region
• pull factors

  A factor that draws or attracts people to another location
• Push factors of rural-urban migration

  - natural disasters

  - war and conflict

  - mechanisation of agricultural equipment

  - drought/desertification

  - lack of employment
• Pull factors of rural-urban migration

  - more jobs

  - better education and healthcare

  - increased quality of life

  - following family members
• natural increase

  the growth rate of a population; the difference between birthrate and death rate
• mega cities

  A city with a population of greater than 10 million
• urban sustainability

  The goal of improving the social and economic conditions of an increasingly urbanized population while maintaining environmental quality
• How can people live more sustainably?

  • Walk or cycle to places

  • Buy and use organic or sustainable products

  • Minimise waste

  • Use energy saving appliances
• Water conservation schemes

  • Collecting water for gardens and toilets,

  • Installing toilets which use less water to flush,

  • Encouraging people to use less water, e.g. turning off tap whilst brushing teeth.

  • Installing water metres so people have to pay for the water they use
• Energy Conservation Schemes

  • promoting renewable energy sources,

  • encouraging people to use less energy at home

  • making sure new homes are built meeting the minimum energy efficiency
• Creating Green spaces

  • increasing the number of parks and planting more trees eg, Queen Elizabeth Park in London
• Environmental benefits of green spaces

  • reduce the risk of flooding by reducing surface runoff from rainfall

  • reduce air pollution by creating pockets of clean air
• Why does creating green spaces improve an area for people of the city?

  • provide naturally cooler areas

  • encourage people to exercise more and to use alternative transport

  • make people feel happier by providing a break from the noise and bustle of the city
• Waste recycling scheme

  • collection of household recycling boxes

  • recycling facilities for larger objects

  • websites where items are offered for free so they can be used by others instead of being thrown away
• How is traffic congestion a big problem for urban areas?

  • Environmental problems- lots of traffic increases air pollution and release of greenhouse gasses contributes to climate change

  
  

  • Economic problems - congestion can make people late to work or meetings, delay deliveries by lorries

  
  

  • Social problems - higher chance of accidents. Congestion causes frustration for drivers, health issues for pedestrians + cyclists and delay emergency vehicles
• How does using public transport reduce traffic congestion?

  • London's Underground system takes 3 million passengers off the roads every day. A new underground line, Crossrail, is being built east to west across the city to increase rail capacity in central London by 10%.

  
  

  • Self service bicucles are available to hire for as little as 30 minutes at a time, and are cheaper than other forms of public transport. Bike lanes and special bike signals at junctions can improve safety.

  
  

  • Electronic 'Oyster Cards' allow people to travel on buses, trains, the Underground and some boats without buying separate tickets. They can be automatically topped up and are simply swiped on entry and exit from stations and buses, making them quick and easy to use.

  
  

  • Many cities (although not London) also have park-and-ride facilities on the outskirts of the oity, which allow people to drive to a large car park, then get the bus into the city centre.
• How can cities manage traffic flow?

  • Bus priority lanes stop buses being held up in traffic, making them more attractive than driving.

  
  

  • Congestion charging discourages drivers from entering the city centre at peak times.

  A scheme in Durham cut the number of cars entering the historic city centre by 85%.

  
  

  • Car sharing schemes connect people with similar commutes so that fewer cars are needed.Carpool lanes encourage more people to use car shares. These are traffic lanes where only cars with 2 or more occupants can go - reducing journey times.

  
  

  • Promoting flexible working hours means workers aren't all working the standard hours of

  9am to 5pm. This helps to spread traffic out through the day, avoiding congestion at rush hour.
• List the methods of classifying countries

  • Gross National Income

  • GNI per head

  • Gross Domestic Product

  • Birth rate

  • Death rate

  • Infant mortality rate

  • People per doctor

  • Literacy rate
• What is Gross National Income (GNI)?

  - The total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year, including income from overseas.

  
  

  - It's a measure of wealth

  
  

  -As a country develops it gets higher
• What is GNI per head?

  - The GNI divided by the population of a country.

  
  

  - A measure of wealth

  
  

  - As a country develops it gets higher
• What is Gross Domestic Product (GDP)?

  _ It is the total value of all goods and services a country produced per year

  
  

  - measures wealth

  
  

  - gets higher as country develops
• What is birth rate?

  - the number of live births per thousand of population per year.

  
  

  - measures women's rights

  
  

  - as a country develops it lowers
• What is death rate?

  - The number of deaths per 1000 people per year

  
  

  - measure of health

  
  

  - as a country develops it lowers
• What is infant mortality rate?

  - the number of babies who die under 1 year old per thousand babies born

  
  

  - measures health

  
  

  - as a country develops it gets lower
• What is people per doctor?

  - the average number of people for each doctor

  
  

  - measures health

  
  

  - as a country develops it gets lower
• What is literacy rate?

  - The percentage of adults who can read and write

  
  

  - measures education

  
  

  - as a country develops it gets higher
• stage 1 of demographic transition

  Low growth; Very high birth and death rates; fluctuate because of disease, famine and war
• Characteristic of stage 1: Demographic Transition Model

  - Remote tribes - Parts of Amazonia, Indonesia and Ecuador

  - little contact with outside world

  - little medicine, low life expectancy
• Stage 2 of Demographic Transition Model

  death rates fall dramatically, while birthrates remain high

  population grows

  e.g. Afghanistan
• Characteristics of stage two

  Improvements in hygiene and medical care

  Life expectancy increases

  Agricultural economies

  Children needed to work the land
• stage 3 of the demographic transition model

  Birth rates rapidly decline, death rates continue to decline but more slowly, and growth rates begin to moderate

  
  

  e.g. India, Kenya, Brazil
• Characteristic of stage 3

  Decrease in birth rate due to availability of birth control and economic changes

  People benefit more from having smaller families

  Children cost more money then they earn