1. PMLS LEC

• Circulatory System


  Responsible for transporting oxygenated blood from the heart and lungs via the arteries, and transporting deoxygenated blood back to the heart via the veins
• Functions of the Circulatory System

  • Delivers oxygen and nutrients to all cells
  • Transports carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the cells
  • Helps in the coagulation process
  • Regulates body temperature
  • Assists in fighting diseases
• Two Main Components of the Circulatory System

  • Cardiovascular System (heart, blood vessels, blood)
  • Lymphatic System (lymph, lymph nodes, vessels)

  
• Heart


  Hollow muscular organ with four chambers, surrounded by a thin, fluid-filled sac called pericardium
• Heart


  • Size: same size of a person's clenched fist
  • Layers: Epicardium (thin, watery membrane), Myocardium (thick layer of cardiac muscle), Endocardium (thin layer of epithelial cells)
• Chambers of the Heart

  • Right Atrium (receives deoxygenated blood from the body)
  • Right Ventricle (receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it into the pulmonary artery)
  • Left Atrium (receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it into the left ventricle)
  • Left Ventricle (receives blood from the left atrium and pumps it into the aorta)
• Valves of the Heart

  • Right AV (atrioventricular) valve: tricuspid valve (closes as the RV contracts preventing blood from flowing back to the RA)
  • Left AV (atrioventricular) valve: bicuspid or mitral valve (closes as the LV contracts preventing blood from flowing back to the LA)
• Septa


  • Interatrial Septum (partition that separates the RA from the LA)
  • Interventricular Septum (separates the RV from the LV)
• Coronary Circulation


  Receives blood supply through the left and right coronary arteries, and coronary veins return the oxygen depleted blood from the heart muscle back to the heart
• Blood Flow through the Heart in 2 MINUTES
• Functions of the Heart

  • Cardiac Cycle (systole and diastole)
  • Electrical Conduction System (sends electric impulses throughout the myocardium)
  • ECG/electrocardiogram (graphical representation of the cardiac cycle's activity)
  • Origin of the Heart Sounds ("Lubb" first sound, "Dupp" second sound)
  • Heart Rate and Cardiac Output (average heart rate is 72 bpm)
  • Pulse (rhythmic throbbing resulting from the alternating expansion and contraction of the artery)
  • Blood Pressure (force exerted by the blood on the walls of the vessel)

  
• Disorders of the Heart

  • Angina pectoris (chest pain from reduced blood flow)
  • Aortic stenosis (murmuring sound when aortic leaflets don't fully open)
  • Bacterial endocarditis (infection in heart lining or blood vessel)
  • Congestive heart failure (chronic progressive condition affecting pumping power)
  • Myocardial infarction (heart attack from decreased/stopped blood flow)
  • Pericarditis (inflammation of the pericardial sac)
• Diagnostic Tests for Heart Disorders

  • Arterial Blood Gas (ABG)
  • Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or Serum Glutamic-Oxaloacetic Transaminase (SGOT)
  • Cholesterol
  • Creatine Kinase (CK)
  • Creatine Kinase-MB (CK-MB)
  • Digoxin
  • ECG
  • Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) isoenzyme
  • Microbial Cultures
  • Myoglobin
  • Potassium
  • Triglycerides
  • Troponin T (TnT)
• Two Main Divisions of the Vascular System

  • Pulmonary circulation
  • Systemic circulation
• Structures of the Vascular System


  • Arteries
  • Arterioles
  • Veins
  • Venules
  • Capillaries
• Blood Vessel Structure


  • Layers: Tunica adventitia (outer connective tissue), Tunica media (middle muscle and elastic fiber), Tunica intima (inner, endothelial cells)
  • Lumen
  • Valves

  
• Disorders of the Vascular System

  • Aneurysm (enlargement of artery due to weakening)
  • Arteriosclerosis (hardening of artery wall due to aging)
  • Atherosclerosis (formation of plaques in inner walls)
  • Embolism (clot or bubble causing artery obstruction)
  • Embolus (obstruction carried and lodged in vessel)
  • Hemorrhoids (swollen veins in anus area)
  • Phlebitis (inflammation of vein wall)
  • Thrombophlebitis (swelling of leg veins in pregnancy)
  • Thrombus (blood clot impeding blood flow)
  • Varicose veins (twisted, enlarged veins usually in legs)
• Diagnostic Tests of the Vascular System

  • D-dimer
  • Fibrin degradation products (FDP)
  • Lipoproteins
  • Prothrombin Time (PT)
  • Partial thromboplastin time (PTT)
  • Triglycerides
• Major Constituents and Functions of Blood Cells

  • Plasma (clear, straw-colored liquid portion of blood)
  • Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
  • Leukocytes (white blood cells)
  • Thrombocytes (platelets)
• Blood Typing


  Determined by the antigens on the surface of the red blood cells, important for blood transfusions
• ABO Blood Group System


  Classifies blood as A, B, O, or AB based on the presence of antigens A and B
• Rh Blood Group System


  Classifies blood as Rh positive (has D antigen) or Rh negative (lacks D antigen), important in obstetrics
• Blood Specimen Types


  • Serum
  • Plasma
  • Whole blood
• Blood Disorders


  • Anemia (not enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin)
  • Leukemia (cancer of blood forming tissues)
• ABO Blood Group System


  Classification based on antigens A and B on the surface of red blood cells
• Blood types


  • A
  • B
  • O
  • AB (universal patients)
• Rh Blood Group System


  Classification system of primary importance in obstetrics due to hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
• Rh positive (Rh+)


  Red blood cells have the D antigen
• Rh negative (Rh-)


  Red blood cells do not have the D antigen
• Compatibility and cross-match


  1. Determine compatibility of donor and recipient's blood

  2. Necessary because individuals without D antigen will produce anti-D which could be fatal if they encounter the D antigen
• Blood specimens collected for testing

  • Serum
  • Plasma
  • Whole blood
• Blood disorders


  • Anemia
  • Leukemia
  • Leukocytosis
  • Leukopenia
  • Polycythemia
  • Thrombocytosis
  • Thrombocytopenia
• Diagnostic tests for blood disorders

  • ABO & RH type
  • Bone marrow examination
  • Complete Blood Count (CBC)
  • Cross-match
  • Differential (diff)
  • Eosinophil (Eos) count
  • Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)
  • Ferritin
  • Hematocrit (Hct)
  • Hemoglabin (Hb or Hgb)
  • Hemogram
  • Indices (MCH, MCV, MCHC)
  • Iron (Fe)
  • Reticulocyte (retic) count
  • Total iron-b-nding capacity (TIBC)
• Lymphatic System


  Network of tissues and organs responsible for removal of toxins and waste in the body
• Primary function of Lymphatic System


  • Transport white blood cells to and from lymph nodes throughout the body
• Lymph


  Fluid similar to plasma but composed of 95% water, transported through lymphatic vessels, ducts and lymph nodes
• Functions of Lymphatic System


  • Transport tissue fluids back to bloodstream
  • Remove impurities
  • Process lymphocytes
  • Transport fats absorbed from small intestine into bloodstream
• Disorders of Lymphatic System

  • Lymphangitis
  • Lymphadenitis
  • Lymphadenopathy
  • Splenomegaly
  • Hodgkin's disease
  • Lymphosarcoma
  • Lymphoma
• Diagnostic tests for Lymphatic System disorders

  • Bone marrow biopsy
  • Complete Blood Count
  • Culture & Sensitivity
  • Lymph node biopsy
  • Mononucleosis test
• Hemostasis


  Stoppage of bleeding in response to injury, through vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, blood clotting, and fibrinolysis