SS2 chapt 5

• Biological evolution


  The process whereby organisms undergo various genetic and physical changes that pave way for biological diversity
• Francisco Jose Ayala


  Spanish American Biologist who stated that various types of plants, animals and other living things on earth have their origins in other pre-existing types and the distinguishable differences are due to modifications in successive generations
• Biocultural evolution


  Introduced by Anthropologists in 1970s, refers to the mutual interactive evolution of human biology and culture.

  States that biology makes culture possible and that developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution
• Cultural development


  Is interconnected with people's capacity for language, tool making, and technological innovation
• Lewis Henry Morgan


  Divided history into three stages of development: Savagery, Barbarism, Civilization
• Friedrich Engels


  Stated that the accumulation of private property paved way for the collapse of primitive communities and establishment of a class-based society
• Karl Marx


  Social institutions evolve primarily due to struggle between social classes over the means of production, such as wealth and private property
• Herbert Spencer


  20th century view that individual members in the societies engage in a competition for survival where the superior ones dominate the inferior
• Cultural relativism


  Individual's attitudes, beliefs, and ideas are based on the cultural context of his or her society. Human behavior is not rooted in biology but is socially constructed
• Band-level society/bands


  Small and nomadic family groups, highly egalitarian and non-hierarchical, distinction based on age, sex and division of labor. Leaders exercised a certain degree of authority or influence but did not exercise power to enforce rules. Not considered as political organizations
• Tribes


  More formal social organization made up of several bands and groups that were connected through a clan structure of kinship, led by a "headman" who performed activities such as resolving conflicts, overseeing activities, and organising feasts and festivals
• Chiefdom


  Tribes united under one leader or chief, more complicated interactions between member tribes and had large populations and territories
• Industrial revolution

  Happened during the mid-1700s until the 1800s, many societies in the world particularly in Western Europe were transformed due to technological breakthroughs and inventions, increased use of mechanical devices, and discovery of steam power which led to factory system
• Effects of industrial revolution

  Increased migration, growth of urban populations, changes in lifestyle, increased production, technological advancement, rise of middle class
• Society as a natural institution


  Ancient Greeks believed that society and its various institutions are a natural product of man's interactions. "Human beings are by nature social and political animals" - Aristotle. The polis, or city-state, was considered as the highest form of interaction which fulfills the highest need of man which is self-sufficiency
• Society as a product of social contract


  Agreement made by the members of society that defines and influences their interactions, particularly those in authority
• Thomas Hobbes


  Believed the need to guarantee security of the people, and that the main role of the political ruler is to maintain order and security of the people
• John Locke


  Believed the need to guarantee fair and impartial enforcement of the law, and that the primary function of the state is to guarantee individuals to exercise their natural rights to life, liberty, and property
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau


  Emphasized on the natural equality of humans and the general will
• Historical-materialist perspective


  By Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, asserts that societies evolve in stages in relation to the development of the means of production and its ownership. The state is viewed as the instrument of the ruling class to maintain its control over the means of production
• Max Weber


  Observed the process of rationalization and bureaucratization, and that more specialized functions have to be performed by social institutions as societies expand economically
• Emile Durkheim


  Mechanical solidarity and Organic Solidarity
• Lao Tzu: 'Life is a series of natural and spontaneous changes. Don't resist them; that only creates sorrow. Let reality be reality. Let things flow naturally forward in whatever way they like.'
• Headman


  Performed activities such as:

  • Resolving Conflicts
  • Organizes feasts and festivals
  • Overseeing activities
• Social Contract 


  Agreement made by the members of society that defines and influences their interactions, particularly those in authority
• Polis

  • or city-state, considered as the highest form of interaction which fulfills the highest need of man which is self-sufficiency.
  • Reflection of the natural order.
• FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE INDUSTRIAL EVOLUTION:

  • Technological breakthroughs and inventions
  • Increased use of mechanical devices
  • The discovery of steam power led to factory system