Bio sac

• GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)


  Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. This alteration can involve inserting, deleting, or modifying specific genes to achieve desired traits.
• Transgenic organisms


  A subset of GMOs where genetic material from one species is inserted into the genome of another species. This results in the expression of traits or characteristics from the inserted gene.
• DNA Transfer


  1. Transformation

  2. Transduction

  3. Conjugation
• DNA arrangement in cells

  • In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are found within the nucleus and are composed of chromatin (DNA and associated proteins)
  • Prokaryotic cells have a single, circular chromosome
• Proteins


  Large biomolecules made up of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. They play critical roles in various cellular functions.
• Protein structure

  • Primary (amino acid sequence)
  • Secondary (local folding patterns like alpha helices and beta sheets)
  • Tertiary (overall 3D structure)
  • Quaternary (arrangement of multiple protein subunits)
• Transcription

  The process by which RNA is synthesized from a DNA template.
• Translation

  The process by which proteins are synthesized using the mRNA template.
• Proteomes


  The entire set of proteins expressed by an organism.
• Biochemical pathways


  Sequences of chemical reactions occurring within a cell, often involving enzymes and substrates.
• CRISPR-Cas9


  A gene-editing tool derived from a bacterial immune system that allows precise editing of DNA sequences by targeting specific locations in the genome and introducing changes such as gene knockouts, insertions, or modifications.
• Plasmids


  Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and used as vehicles to carry and transfer foreign genetic material between organisms.
• Recombinant plasmid construction


  Inserting foreign DNA fragments (e.g., genes) into plasmid vectors using restriction enzymes and ligases.
• Enzymes in genetic engineering

  • Polymerases
  • Ligases
  • Restriction enzymes
• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)


  1. Denaturation

  2. Annealing

  3. Extension
• PCR players


  • DNA template
  • Primers (short DNA sequences)
  • DNA polymerase
  • Nucleotides (A, T, C, G)
  • Buffer solution
• Gel electrophoresis


  Separates DNA fragments based on size by applying an electric field to a gel matrix
• Gel electrophoresis players


  • Gel
  • DNA samples
  • Buffer solution
  • Electrodes
• The separated DNA fragments appear as bands on the gel, with smaller fragments migrating faster and farther than larger ones. The pattern of bands can be analyzed to determine fragment sizes.
• GMOs


  Organisms whose genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally through mating or natural recombination
• Transgenic organisms


  A specific type of GMOs where genetic material from one species is inserted into the genome of another species
• Transgenic organisms


  Are a type of GMOs
• All transgenic organisms are GMOs, but not all GMOs are transgenic organisms
• DNA Transfer


  DNA can be transferred between organisms through transformation, transduction, and conjugation
• DNA arrangement in eukaryotic cells

  DNA is arranged into chromosomes within the nucleus, composed of chromatin (DNA and associated proteins)
• DNA arrangement in prokaryotic cells


  DNA is a single, circular chromosome
• Proteins


  Large biomolecules made up of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, playing critical roles in cellular functions
• Protein structure


  • Primary (amino acid sequence)
  • Secondary (local folding patterns)
  • Tertiary (overall 3D structure)
  • Quaternary (arrangement of multiple subunits)
• Transcription


  The process by which RNA is synthesized from a DNA template
• Translation


  The process by which proteins are synthesized using the mRNA template
• Proteome


  The entire set of proteins expressed by an organism
• Biochemical pathways


  Sequences of chemical reactions occurring within a cell, often involving enzymes and substrates
• Understanding proteomes and biochemical pathways is important when developing GMOs, particularly transgenic organisms, to ensure desired traits are expressed without disrupting essential cellular functions
• CRISPR-Cas9


  A gene-editing tool derived from a bacterial immune system
• CRISPR-Cas9


  • Allows precise editing of DNA sequences by targeting specific locations in the genome and introducing changes such as gene knockouts, insertions, or modifications
  • Valuable for its simplicity, efficiency, and versatility in genome editing, making it a powerful tool for research and applications in biotechnology and medicine
• Plasmids


  Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and used as vehicles to carry and transfer foreign genetic material between organisms
• Plasmid vectors


  Engineered plasmids designed to carry specific DNA sequences (e.g., genes of interest) into target cells
• Making a recombinant plasmid


  Insert foreign DNA
• Polymerases


  Enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of DNA or RNA strands from nucleotide triphosphates
• Ligases


  Enzymes that catalyze the joining of DNA fragments by forming phosphodiester bonds