DRRRM

• Carbohydrates


  Compounds based on structure, sources, and functions of the cell
• Carbohydrates


  • Simple carbohydrates
  • Complex carbohydrates
• Carbohydrate classification


  1. Monosaccharides

  2. Disaccharides

  3. Polysaccharides
• Monosaccharides


  Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
• Disaccharides


  Lactose, Maltose, Sucrose
• Polysaccharides


  Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen
• Glucose


  • Abundant in blood sugar, grape, sugar, or wine sugar
• Galactose


  • Less soluble and less sweet than sugar
• Fructose


  • Also known as fruit sugar, abundant in honey, corn syrup, and sweet fruits
• Monosaccharides


  • Can exist in straight chain or cyclic forms
• Disaccharides


  Made of two monosaccharides joined together by condensation reaction (loss of water), bonded by glycosidic bonds
• Sucrose


  • Also known as table sugar, cane sugar or beet sugar, made from glucose and fructose
• Lactose


  • Also known as milk sugar, made up of glucose and galactose
• Maltose


  • Also known as malt sugar, made up of two glucose units
• Polysaccharides


  Polymers of monosaccharides units
• Glycogen


  • Major glucose storage monomers and starch-like polysaccharide produced in animals, highly branched than starch, stored in liver and muscles
• Starch


  • Found in plants like rice, digestible by most organisms and partially soluble in water, some are branched molecules of glucose units, can be a source of dextrin (as adhesives) when heated
• Cellulose


  • Abundant biological molecule which is also a polymer of glucose, insoluble in water and provides rigidity, structure and hardness in plants, can be digested only by few microorganisms that live in digestive tract of goats and cows
• Nucleic acids


  Nitrogen-containing compounds and polymers found primarily in cell nuclei, serve as identification of each living organism which has specific code for the sequence of proteins

  
• Nucleotides


  Consist of nitrogenous bases, sugar and phosphate groups
• DNA


  Consists of two strands of nucleotides, sugar is deoxyribose, adenine bonds with thymine and cytosine bonds with guanine, located inside the nucleus

  
• RNA


  Single stranded, sugar is ribose, adenine bonds with uracil and cytosine bonds with guanine, located inside the cytoplasm

  
• Genetic code


  Arrangement of code words in DNA, sequence of nucleotide bases

  
• Amino acids


  • Phenylalanine
  • Leucine
  • Isoleucine
  • Methionine
  • Valine
  • Serine
  • Proline
  • Threonine
  • Alanine
  • Tyrosine
  • Histidine
  • Glutamine
  • Asparagine
  • Lysine
  • Aspartate
  • Glutamate
  • Cysteine
  • Tryptophan
  • Arginine
  • Glycine
• Gene mutations


  Changes in the structure of genetic material in DNA sequence that may or may not be inherited, caused by high-energy radiation, toxic chemicals, and mutagens
• Types of gene mutations

  • Point mutation
  • Frameshift mutation
  • Chromosomal mutation
• Point mutation


  A nucleotide is substituted, can be silent, missense, or nonsense
• Silent mutation


  • A nucleotide is substituted but still the same amino acid is produced
• Missense mutation


  • A nucleotide is substituted by and results to different codon that corresponds to different amino acid
• Nonsense mutation


  • A nucleotide is substituted by and results to the formation of stop codon instead of a codon in coding an amino acid
• Frameshift mutation


  Affects only one nitrogen base by either being completely deleted or extra one is inserted into the middle of a sequence of DNA, can be insertion or deletion
• Insertion


  • A single nitrogenous base is added in the middle of the sequence so that wrong amino acid is translated and alters the protein
• Deletion


  • A nitrogenous base is deleted or taken out of the sequence of amino acid
• Types of chromosomal mutations

  • Deletion
  • Insertion
  • Inversion
  • Duplication
  • Translocation
• Deletion


  • A portion of a chromosome is omitted, and genes are lost permanently
• Insertion


  • A portion of chromosome is added to another chromosome
• Inversion


  • The order of genes in the chromosomes is reversed
• Duplication


  • A portion of the chromosomes is repeated and doubled in the same chromosome
• Translocation


  • The chromosome segments change positions
• Proteins


  Mainly needed for growth and development, important in maintaining homeostasis, play role in catalytic mechanisms, components of cell membranes, body movements, defense against germs and infections, and secretion of hormones for body processes