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• What was a common characteristic of decolonisation in South America?

  Violence was a common characteristic, with conflicts occurring between Europeans and colonials, and between colonials themselves. Nine of the 20 independent countries gained independence following a war.
• Who were some of the Europeans that supported colonial independence movements?

  La Fayette was a French general who supported the American troops in the independence wars. Britain supported Haiti and former Spanish colonies to weaken the French and Spanish.
• What are examples of violence among colonials during decolonisation?

  In the USA, loyalists to the British throne fought against revolutionaries. In Haiti, there was a slave insurrection.
• How did the observation and participation in other revolutions influence South America?

  Dominican mulattos in the French army of British North America fought alongside Americans and returned home with the idea of revolution. South American revolutionaries were indirectly inspired by these wars.
• What direct influences did South America receive during its decolonisation?

  The U.S. supported the Haitian insurrection in the 1790s. Haiti gave asylum to Bolívar twice. These revolutions sometimes led to stronger ties between the colony and the metropole.
• What was the reverse consequence of some revolutions in South America?

  These revolutions sometimes strengthened the ties between the colony and the metropole. Canadian nation grew out of anti-revolutionarism, and Caribbean landowners preferred colonial status quo to a repetition of Haiti's revolution.
• How did social structures continue after decolonisation in South America?

  There was no social revolution in most countries. The elite remained a white and affluent minority, except in the USA (majority white) and Haiti (majority black). Slavery was maintained in the U.S. and Brazil; Brazil was the last country to abolish slavery.
• Which countries abolished slavery during decolonisation?

  The United Kingdom was the first to abolish slavery. The USA and Brazil maintained slavery even after gaining independence.
• What were some of the political structures that emerged after decolonisation in South America?

  Many independent countries became empires, such as Haiti, Brazil, and Mexico. There was a reaction against liberal systems in the home countries. The USA was an exception, forming a successful constitutional confederation.
• What were the economic conditions after decolonisation in South America?

  Economic conditions remained consistent, with goods production and free trade continuing after decolonisation.
• What significant migration trend occurred from 1500 to 1783?

  1.4 million European migrants moved to the New World.
• What migration pattern was observed from 1815 to 1914?

  22.6 million people left the British Isles, with 62% going to the United States.
• What was the White Australia Policy, and when was it enforced?

  The White Australia Policy (1901 – 1949/73) racially regulated immigration, favouring white immigrants.
• What was the Empire Settlement Act, and when was it introduced?

  The Empire Settlement Act (1922) attracted British migrants to Canada, especially farmers and engineers.
• What was responsible government, and which colonies had it in the 19th century?

  Responsible government means governments are accountable to parliament instead of the monarch. It started in Canada (1848-55), then extended to other white settler colonies.
• Which colonies gained responsible government from 1855 to 1907?

  Victoria (1855), New South Wales, New Zealand, South Australia, Tasmania (1856), Cape Colony (1872), Western Australia (1890), Natal (1893), Transvaal (1906), Orange River Colony (1907).
• What is a dominion, and when did Canada become one?

  A dominion is a semi-independent polity under British sovereignty. Canada became a dominion in 1867.
• What were some key events leading to the status of dominions?

  The Second Balfour Declaration (1926) stated that dominions were "equal in status" to Britain, and the Statute of Westminster (1931) provided legal independence for dominions.
• What significant development occurred in 1949 with the Commonwealth?


  The Commonwealth of Nations was established, transforming the British Empire into a commonwealth of independent states.
• What were some notable milestones in progressive political culture within white settler colonies?

  Australia had a secret ballot in the 1850s, New Zealand granted female suffrage in 1893, and the UK introduced universal male suffrage in 1948.
• What events signalled the erosion of ties with Britain in the 20th century?

  Canada established its own citizenship in 1946, Australia and New Zealand followed in 1948-49, and Ireland left the Commonwealth in 1949. Other events include South Africa leaving the Commonwealth in 1961 and the adoption of the maple leaf flag in Canada in 1965.
• What is the significance of the Queen of Canada in 1952 and the Queen of Australia in 1973?

  These signify a shift toward national identity, with Canada and Australia asserting their sovereignty while maintaining symbolic connections to Britain.
• What are the three parts that make up the diverse region of East Africa?

  Inland plateau around great lakes, Coast connected to the Indian Ocean, and Zanzibar, a center for Afro-Asiatic trade.
• When did the Arabs retake the East African coast from the Portuguese, and which regions were involved?

  In the 17th century, the Arabs retook the coast. Muscat, Oman in 1650, and Mombassa, Kenya in 1698. The formal control was under the Imam of Oman, but in reality, autonomous sheikhs held power.
• What was Zanzibar's significance in East African trade, and who controlled it?

  Zanzibar was a powerful and rich emporium of Afro-Asiatic trade. It was controlled by Arabs and had significant influence on the East African coast.
• What were the European interests in East Africa, and which countries had these interests?

  European interests were historical (especially Portugal), economic (Britain and Germany), and strategic (Britain from Cape to Cairo).
• Who was Carl Peters, and what role did he play in the colonization of East Africa?

  Carl Peters was a German "businessman" who triggered German colonization. In 1884, he closed 12 treaties of "eternal friendship" with inland tribes and later asked for protection from Berlin.
• Who was Emin Pasha, and what happened to him?

  Emin Pasha was a Swiss governor of Equatoria, successor to Gordon. He got lost, and Stanley found him near Lake Albert in 1888.
• What were the significant treaties that shaped East Africa after the Berlin Conference?

  The 1885 treaty forced the Sultan of Zanzibar to recognize European control of East Africa, leading to shared control between Britain and Germany. The 1886 treaty divided the East African inland into British East Africa (future Kenya) and Deutsch-Ostafrika (future Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi). The 1890 Zanzibar Helgoland treaty settled tensions about Equatoria and Uganda.
• What was the Zanzibar Helgoland treaty, and what were its terms?

  The treaty resolved the British-German tensions by allowing Britain to have Uganda and Zanzibar, while Germany had the border with Congo and Helgoland (an island in the North Sea). Britain saw it as part of its "Cape to Cairo" strategy.
• What does "pacification" refer to in the context of East Africa, and what were its characteristics?

  Pacification referred to European control of divided territories following the Berlin Conference. It was characterized by violence, especially by the Germans, while the British used a combination of rewards and punishments (carrots and sticks). The French had their own approach with two Franco-Hova Wars, which didn't go well.
• Why was the Upper Nile important to Britain and France?

  Britain needed to control the Nile to protect Egypt, as it was key to Egyptian society and economy. France had emotional ties due to historical connections and aimed to connect from Dakar to Djibouti, moving from west to east.
• What was Britain's primary interest in the Upper Nile region?

  Britain's goal was to protect Egypt by controlling the Nile. The "Cape to Cairo" strategy meant controlling the Nile from south to north.
• What was France's motivation in the Upper Nile?

  France had emotional ties due to Napoleon's legacy and aimed to establish a west-to-east connection from Dakar to Djibouti. The idea of "Sudan as the second Sédan" reflects these historical sentiments.
• What made Ethiopia a strong nation in the Horn of Africa?

  Ethiopia was unified by the Coptic Church and had a rich history. It claimed descent from King Solomon and was one of the oldest empires in Africa, existing since the 12th century.
• How was the Horn of Africa divided among European powers?

  Britain controlled British Somaliland, France had Djibouti, Italy took Eritrea and Italian Somalia. This division involved several wars, insurrections, and local resistance, notably the "Mad Mullah" or Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.
• How did Menelik II rise to power, and what was his role in stopping Italian ambitions?

  Menelik II rose to power with Italian help between 1887 and 1889. He later stopped Italian ambitions by refusing their protectorate, leading to the Ethiopians' victory at Adwa, preventing Ethiopia from becoming a colony.
• What did Menelik II do after defeating the Italians at Adwa?

  Menelik II kicked the Italians out, searched for an alliance with the French, and forced Britain to take control of the region to avoid a French-Ethiopian alliance. This led to Britain's 1896 invasion of Sudan from the north.
• What was the French reaction to British actions in Sudan, and what did Jean-Baptiste Marchand do in Fashoda?

  In 1896, France launched an expedition to claim Sudan, with Jean-Baptiste Marchand leading a raid to Fashoda. The French established a protectorate after defeating the Mahdists, arriving two months before the British.
• What was the result of the British reconquest of Sudan, and what were its consequences?

  Britain hoisted the Egyptian flag in Fashoda, turning Sudan into an English-Egyptian condominium. This put an end to French-British rivalry, leading to the 1904 Entente Cordiale, allowing a Paris-London alliance and Menelik II unifying Ethiopia.