Good and Evil

• morality - what is considered good and right
• ethics - study of right and wrong
• absolute morality - same set of rules applied to every situation or decision. example: Declaration of Human Rights, the Ten Commandments
• relative morality - set of rules change according to the situation. example: lying to protect someone's feelings
• making ethical decisions:

  • Rule of Law
  • Situation Ethics (Joseph Fletcher)
  • Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham)
  • religious texts (Bible, the Pope)
  • absolute morality
  • relative morality
  • Natural Law (Thomas Aquinas)
• making ethical decisions (criticisms):

  • unethical laws
  • we dont know what the most loving thing actually is - we cant see the future (situation ethics relies on knowing the consequences)
  • what happens to the minority in utilitarianism?
  • religious texts rely on there being a God and interpretations of texts
  • how do you create absolute moral laws to follow? how do you know if they are right?
  • what is seen as right in one situation could change over time, so no decision could be good forever
  • humans decide what is natural, and this could change
• evil - an action that produces really bad consequences, even if they're not immediate. example: murder
• natural evil - result of the way the world works. example: natural disasters
• moral evil - choosing to do something with negative consequences. the result of humans making poor choices. the result of choosing the wrong thing is suffering.
• the fact that evil exists causes people to think that God doesnt exist, or he doesnt have the nature we think he does. whether evil is produced morally or naturally, its existence makes it difficult to believe in God.
• the problem of God and evil coexisting was first set out by Greek philosopher Epicurus. Later, Saint Augustine said: 'either God cannot abolish evil, or He will not; if He cannot then He is not all powerful, if He will not then He is not all good'.
• God IS God because he is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent. if evil exists, he can't BE God
• Inconsistent Triad - evil exists, God is all loving, God is all powerful. David Hume said these three points of the triangle can't exist at the same time. The only explanation is that God doesn't exist at all.
• Religious believers obviously believe God does exist, AND that he is all loving, all knowing, and all powerful. Explanations for the coexistence of God and evil are called theodicies.
• Theodicy proposed by Saint Augustine:

  • evil does not actually exist, it is just a lack of goodness.
  • Genesis Creation Story - Adam and Eve disobeyed God and were the first to lack complete goodness. So they are responsible for moral evil.
  • God did not intervene because for God's world to be perfect, humans need free will, otherwise we are just puppets.
  • Also said Adam and Eve are responsible for natural evil as the whole of nature became unbalanced when they lacked complete goodness.
  • criticism: if Adam and Eve are responsible, then why does all of humanity have to suffer?
• Theodicy proposed by Saint Irenaeus:

  • God did not create people perfect.
  • the world is a vale of soul making, so people have the opportunity to use their gift of free will to develop themselves.
  • we can grow from God's Own Image to God's Own Divine Likeness.
  • challenges of life provide opportunities for spiritual growth.
  • the world is perfect for human development.
  • criticism: why should an omnipotent God need to use suffering as a method for development?
• John Hicks ( a modern philosopher aware of evolution and modern human life) agreed with Saint Irenaeus, and said:

  • God created us out of love so we could love him back.
  • love that is forced or controlled is not true love.
  • something forced or controlled is not perfect, so God gave us free will so his world would be perfect.
  • if free will is genuine, we need an alternative choice (which explains evil existing)
• conscience - inner voice which helps people make moral decisions. Christians believe it is God's voice that speaks to the human heart.
• People have the obligation to inform their conscience by taking on board information that is relevant to what they are making a decision about.
• sin - missing the mark of perfection. Acting in a less than perfect way deliberately.
• virtue - characteristic or feature of human nature that leads to good consequences. examples: patience, courage, honesty. To be virtuous, you must develop these positive features in yourself.
• crime - any action that breaks the law and is therefore punishable by law.
• reasons for breaking the law:

  • poor mental health, and drugs/ alcohol addiction
  • living in poverty/ unemployment
  • peer pressure
  • poor childhood and abuse
  • poor education
  • violence and crime in the media
• punishment - making up for wrongdoing or paying a penalty for it. Necessary to make sure laws are obeyed.
• From a Utilitarian pov: punishment of criminals is necessary to ensure the greatest about of people (general public) happiness and safety. Criminals are the minority, so it's alright that they suffer.
• reasons for punishment:

  • protection - society is protected from criminals if they're in prison.
  • reform - understanding why someone committed the crime, and attempting to fix the cause. example: rehab.
  • deterrence - attempting to intimidate potential criminals with harsh punishment.
  • reparation - repairing the damage done through the crime. example: community service.
  • retribution - giving an offender what 'they deserve' for hurt/ damage, so justice is seen to have been done.
  • vindication - prove authority of the law. punishment allows people to have confidence in the law.
• Christians believe EVERYONE is made in God's Own Divine Image. Prisoners are people worthy of respect and dignity, and still entitled to their human rights. Should be seen as 'potential assets' instead of dangers to society. So Christians think the main aim of punishment should be to reform and rehabilitate.
• Justice means fairness. Justice is restored when the perpetrator is punished for their crime.
• forgiveness - conscious decision to let go of any anger and hatred against the person who wronged you.
• Forgiveness is very important in Christianity - Jesus taught agape love, compassion, and forgiveness.
• examples of forgiveness in the Bible:

  • Jesus in the Beautitudes - 'love and pray for your enemies'
  • Parable of the Unforgiving Servant - God forgives people so we have an obligation to do the same, as everyone is a 'child of God'.
  • we should forgive 'seventy times seven' (always!)
  • Adulterous Woman - 'if any one of you is without sin, let him be the first to throw a stone'.
  • Lord's Prayer - 'forgive us for our wrongdoings, as we forgive those who do wrong against us.'
  • Parable of the Forgiving Father
• forgiveness is only possible if people are willing to overcome natural instincts and let go of hate.
• supporting forgiveness:

  • Gandhi - 'the weak can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attribute of the strong.'
  • Nelson Mandela - 'resentment is like drinking poison and hoping it will kill your enemies.'
  • Jesus - 'Father forgive them, for they know not what they do.'
• reconciliation - to 'bring back together again'. Victim accepting the apology of the criminal.
• problems with the prison system: overcrowding, lack of funding, low availability of specialist services.
• famous prison reformers:

  • Elizabeth Fry - Quaker, visited Newgate Prison in 1813 and decided to try and make conditions in women's prisons better. Educated women in prison, and taught them useful skills.
  • John Howard - Christian, prison inspector. Published a report on the conditions in prisons in 1777. The Howard League of Penal Reform.
• Parable of the Sheep and Goats mentions visiting people/Jesus in prison. Jesus did not make any distinction between the needs of people in or out of prison. Focused on reformation and not looking down on criminals.
• traditionally, a chaplain was a minister/priest, or a rabbit. however, today they don't necessarily have any religious connections. example: Humanist Volunteers at Winchester Prison
• prison chaplain - their job is to provide personal care for prisoners. example: counselling to benefit mental and spiritual health.
• death penalty - being executed for a crime, usually used as deterrence or retribution. Legal in over 80 countries.