There was much continuity during these centuries regarding popular beliefs about the causes of disease and illness
For most people, the methods of prevention of disease and treatments for those who were sick remained very similar
Causes of disease and illness believed by most people
An imbalance of the four humours
Bad air, or miasma
The theory of the four humours had been discredited by c.1700, but most people still believed in the idea
New medical ideas and discoveries
Small seeds spread in the air were observed using newly invented microscopes
Factors outside the human body (eg temperature), rather than the four humours inside the body
'Animalcules'- tiny animals that could only be seen using a microscope
These new ideas had little impact, the general public continued to believe that illness was caused by an imbalance of the four humours
The invention of the printing press in the 15th century meant that books could be printed rather than written out by hand, and new ideas could be spread more easily
The printing press also meant the Church no longer had control over what was written in books, so physicians and scientists were able to publish ideas that challenged people like Galen
The Royal Society
Founded in 1660 in London to support scientists in carrying out experiments, debating new ideas and sharing new discoveries
Supported by Charles II, which increased its popularity and credibility
Began issuing its scientific journal in 1665
Continues to publish scientific journals and carry out its mission across the UK and globally in the 21st century
Andreas Vesalius
The most famous anatomist of the Renaissance, who improved the existing understanding of anatomy
Dissection had previously been viewed as extremely indecent and blasphemous, but it was no longer banned because the power of the Church was decreasing
Vesalius was able to carry out a large number of dissections because a local magistrate allowed him to use the bodies of executed criminals
Vesalius' discoveries
The human jaw has one bone, not two
The human breastbone has three parts, not seven
Blood does not flow into the heart through invisible holes in the septum (the wall dividing the ventricles of the heart) but is 'diffused' through it
Vesalius' discoveries led to an improved understanding of the human body and his book was used to train physicians across Europe, including in England
Doctors were encouraged to carry out dissections themselves and carefully observe the human body rather than relying on old books
Humanism
A new way of thinking that recognised the importance of the individual in discovering the truth around them, and rejected the religious idea that God controlled everything
Thomas Sydenham
Encouraged physicians to move away from the classical ideas of Galen and Hippocrates towards the new scientific ideas of observation
Believed that to diagnose a patient's illness, a doctor needed to closely observe the symptoms and treat the disease that was causing them
Refused to rely solely on medical books
Encouraged his students to observe a patient carefully, record a description of their symptoms, and prescribe a remedy that would treat the disease
Sydenham became known as the 'English Hippocrates' because of how important he believed it was for doctors to observe their patients
Sydenham's work led to a more scientific approach to medicine after the 18th century
Despite the innovations and discoveries of people such as Andreas Vesalius and Thomas Sydenham, some ideas from the medieval period about the causes of disease and illness continued to be accepted
For most of the Renaissance, doctors continued to learn from the books of Galen and Hippocrates at university, but the printing press meant different ideas were starting to become available in more accessible printed books
Towards the end of the Renaissance, the ideas of Galen were challenged by individuals such as Vesalius, Sydenham and William Harvey
The training of physicians took a more scientific approach, encouraging observation and experimentation, and doctors had the opportunity to dissect bodies and learn using new technology, such as the microscope
Rich people continued to pay for a doctor or nurse to look after them at home, but most people continued to seek cheaper remedies from an apothecary, and women continued to play an important role in the care of the sick
The first person to treat sickness was normally the patient's wife or mother, and in some villages, wealthy women provided charity and care for families
Many medieval hospitals had been attached to monasteries or convents, but after the Reformation, when Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries, the hospitals lost their religious connections
Care of the sick
Rich people continued to pay for a doctor or nurse to look after them at home
Most people continued to seek cheaper remedies from an apothecary
Women continued to play an important role in the care of the sick
The first person to treat sickness was normally the patient's wife or mother
In some villages, wealthy women provided charity and care for families
Many medieval hospitals had been attached to monasteries or convents
After the Reformation, when Henry VIII closed the monasteries, the hospitals were taken over by local authorities
Hospitals were now funded by charity and run by physicians
In London, St Bartholomew's was kept open in this way
Some hospitals were beginning to concentrate on treating the sick, aiming to deal with patients' symptoms and illnesses
Most hospitals continued to provide care in the form of food and warmth rather than medical cures
Treatment of illness
Bloodletting and purging were still common treatments used to balance the four humours
Herbal remedies were still used
Increase in travel brought new ingredients to England, such as rhubarb and tobacco, that were used to treat the sick
Superstition and religious beliefs remained
It was believed that being touched by the monarch could cure a skin disease called scrofula (also known as the 'king's evil')
The monarch was seen as God's representative on Earth, so being touched by them was the closest people could get to being touched by God
William Harvey
Studied medicine at the University of Cambridge and at a famous medical school in Padua, Italy, during the Renaissance
Became a lecturer in anatomy and was a doctor to Charles I
Interested in how blood flowed around the body
Proved Galen's ideas about blood flow were wrong
Proved Vesalius' theory that the veins of the body contained valves
Carried out scientific experiments including dissecting human corpses and cold-blooded animals
Harvey discovered that the heart acts as a pump, moving blood around the body
Mechanical water pumps used by firefighters in the 17th century may have given Harvey the idea that blood is pumped around the body by the heart
Harvey was unable to explain how blood moves from the arteries to the veins