social psychology: prejudice

• Prejudice


  To prejudge somebody before knowing anything about them as an individual
• Prejudice


  • An extreme attitude (usually negative) towards a group that causes us to prejudge individuals based only on their membership of a group
• Realistic conflict theory


  Suggests that prejudice is a result of conflict between groups due to competition for the same valued resources
• Immigrants


  People perceive that resources (e.g. jobs) are limited so they view the immigrants as competitors and therefore feel prejudice and hostility towards them
• Aronson et al. (1978) showed that the removal of competition in a classroom and working towards a shared goal could reduce conflict
• Ember & Ember (1992) observed that in tribal societies, intergroup hostility increases when competition for natural & social resources increases e.g. during famine/natural disasters, warfare was more likely to ensure access to scarce resources
• Superordinate goals


  Goals that can be achieved by the cooperation of all group members together
• Sherif believed that intergroup hostility could only be reduced by shared goals where both groups had to co-operate in order to achieve the intended outcome
• Intergroup conflict


  Conflict experienced between different groups
• Sherif et al.'s Robber's Cave Experiment provides the greatest amount of supporting evidence for realistic conflict theory, as it found that hostility between groups increased when the groups were in competition with one another
• Sherif's own writings suggest that the boys in the Robbers Cave study may have been becoming hostile towards the other groups before any competition was introduced, which may mean that Social Identity Theory is a better explanation for the development of prejudice
• The Robbers Cave study was a field study so was high in ecological validity, as going to a summer camp would be something that American school aged boys would ordinarily do
• The theory has practical real-world applications: it suggests that prejudice and hostility between groups can be reduced if they have superordinate goals
• Aronson et al. (1978) found the jigsaw technique of working towards shared goals in the classroom reduced competition and hostility
• This control was to ensure the staff did not direct the behaviour of the boys
• The participants did not know that they were being studied, and so were not aware of the aim of the research
• Demand characteristics were reduced, so that the overall validity of the study was high
• Several data collection methods were used and the findings agree
• The researchers did not get informed consent from the boys themselves as they did not know that they were part of a study
• The boys may not have been fully protected as the parents could not visit the boys during the study to check on their welfare
• The sample was biased because all participants were of a similar socio-economic background and were the same age, ethnicity and religion
• Any research into prejudice & discrimination has the potential to be socially sensitive for the participant involved in the research themselves or the groups they represent
• The implication that prejudice doesn't exist without these factors is not necessarily supported by other research
• Social identity theory suggests that there are three processes involved in becoming prejudiced
• Processes involved in becoming prejudiced

  • Social categorisation
  • Social identification
  • Social comparison
• Social categorisation


  We categorise ourselves and others as part of particular social groups
• Social identification


  People take on the norms and values of the group that they have categorised themselves as belonging to
• Social comparison


  Self-esteem becomes bound up with group membership, so for self-esteem to be maintained, our group needs to compare well against other groups
• In-group favouritism


  The tendency of group members to see the individuals within their group as unique, (heterogeneous) and as favourable
• Out-group homogeneity


  The tendency to view members of the out-group as "all the same" (homogeneous)
• Tajfel argued that people want to promote their in-group because it enhances their self esteem
• Intergroup hostility is facilitated by a lack of equal status contact
• Conflict can be reduced between in-groups/ out-groups and majority/ minority groups successfully if people who are involved are of equal status contacts and contact and communication is encouraged
• Deutsch & Collins (1951) found that in the desegregated housing project, the housewives mixed regularly and held each other in higher regard compared to the segregated housewives
• Minimal Group Theory suggests that dividing people into groups is sufficient to cause prejudice to occur between them
• Tajfel et al. (1971) found that boys tended to allocate more points to people in their own group, even though they didn't know who was in their group or who was in an out group
• Tajfel found that the individual members would not only allocate more points to their own group members but would often maximise the difference between the groups, even if it meant their own group receiving fewer points overall
• Authoritarianism


  A personality trait characterized by a desire for order, rigid adherence to rules, and hostility towards those seen as inferior
• Authoritarian personalities


  • Tend to be hostile towards those they see as inferior, particularly minority groups or out-groups
  • Tend to be obedient to authority
• Adorno et al.'s study on authoritarianism

  1. Conducted interviews covering life history, background beliefs, feelings towards others, religious & political ideology

  2. Used Thematic Apperception Tests

  3. Produced theory of prejudice