Sts

• Geocentric model


  Earth was considered the center of the universe
• Geocentric model


  • Celestial bodies, including the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars, orbited around a stationary Earth in complex, nested spheres
  • It was supported by the Catholic Church and was considered consistent with biblical teachings
• The geocentric model was deeply ingrained in both scientific and religious thought during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
• Ptolemaic system


  • It successfully predicted the motions of celestial bodies with reasonable accuracy
  • There were inconsistencies and complexities in the geocentric model, such as the retrograde motion of planets, which astronomers attempted to explain through intricate mechanisms like epicycles
• Copernican Revolution


  A major shift in scientific thought that occurred during the 16th and 17th centuries
• Copernican model


  • The Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the solar system
  • The planets, including Earth, orbited around it
• Nicolaus Copernicus


  • A Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model of the universe
• Johannes Kepler


  • Formulated laws of planetary motion that supported Copernicus's heliocentric model
• Galileo Galilei


  • His telescopic observations provided evidence for heliocentrism and led to his conflict with the Catholic Church
• The Copernican Revolution marked a significant turning point in the history of science, leading to a more accurate understanding of the cosmos and challenging established religious and philosophical beliefs
• Creationism


  The predominant view in Western societies that all species were individually created by a divine entity, typically the Christian God, in their present form
• Creationism


  • It was deeply rooted in religious texts such as the Bible's Book of Genesis, which described the world and its inhabitants as created by God in six days
  • The fixity of species was a commonly held belief, meaning that species were thought to remain unchanged since their creation
• Natural theology


  The view that the complexity and design of living organisms were evidence of divine creation
• Fossil discoveries were often interpreted within the framework of biblical narratives, with fossils seen as remnants of organisms destroyed in the biblical flood
• The concept of spontaneous generation, the idea that living organisms could arise from non-living matter, was also prevalent in pre-Darwinian thought
• Darwinian Revolution


  The profound paradigm shift in biology initiated by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection
• Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection

  • Organisms with heritable variations better suited to their environment would have a higher chance of surviving and reproducing, thus passing on their advantageous traits to subsequent generations
  • This process, known as natural selection, gradually leads to the adaptation of species to their environments and the divergence of new species from common ancestors
• The theory of evolution by natural selection revolutionized biological thinking by providing a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth
• The Darwinian Revolution challenged traditional views of divine creation and the fixity of species, sparking controversy and debate within both scientific and religious communities
• The Darwinian Revolution laid the foundation for modern evolutionary biology, influencing fields such as ecology, medicine, agriculture, and conservation
• Cartesian dualism


  The proposal by René Descartes that separated the mind (res cogitans) from the body (res extensa), framing mental processes as distinct from physical phenomena
• Freudian Revolution


  The profound impact of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theories on psychology, psychiatry, and the broader cultural landscape
• Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theories

  • Emphasized the importance of unconscious mental processes, childhood experiences, and the dynamic interplay of conscious and unconscious forces in shaping human behavior
  • Central to Freudian theory is the concept of the unconscious mind, which harbors repressed memories, desires, and conflicts that influence thoughts, emotions, and behavior
• Structural model of the mind

  Comprising the id (primitive drives), ego (conscious awareness), and superego (internalized moral standards), each with distinct roles in personality development and functioning
• Psychoanalysis, the therapeutic method developed by Freud, aimed to bring unconscious conflicts and repressed material into conscious awareness through techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and transference
• The Freudian Revolution had a profound impact on diverse fields, including literature, art, film, and popular culture, influencing themes of sexuality, identity, repression, and the unconscious in artistic expression
• Carl Jung


  • A Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology, who initially collaborated with Freud but later developed his own theories, diverging from Freud's emphasis on sexual drives. His concepts include the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of individuation.
• Alfred Adler


  • An Austrian psychiatrist and founder of individual psychology, who broke from Freud's psychoanalytic circle to develop his own theory centered on the importance of social factors, striving for superiority, and the role of the individual's perception of self.
• Melanie Klein


  • A British psychoanalyst known for her work with children, who expanded upon Freud's theories of psychoanalysis by focusing on early childhood experiences and the importance of the infant's relationship with the mother. She introduced concepts such as the depressive position and object relations theory.
• Anna Freud


  • The daughter of Sigmund Freud, who made significant contributions to child psychoanalysis and the understanding of defense mechanisms. She further developed the concept of ego psychology and played a key role in the application of psychoanalytic principles to child development and education.
• Erik Erikson


  • A developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst, who expanded upon Freud's theory of psychosexual development by proposing a psychosocial theory that emphasized the influence of social interactions and cultural context on personality development. He introduced the concept of identity crisis and outlined eight stages of psychosocial development.
• Karen Horney


  • A German psychoanalyst and feminist theorist, who challenged Freudian orthodoxy by highlighting the role of cultural and social factors in the development of personality. She proposed concepts such as neurotic needs, the tyranny of 'shoulds', and the importance of interpersonal relationships in shaping psychological well-being.