Module2_Carbohydrates

• The glycosidic bond is formed between the anomeric carbon atom (C1) of one monosaccharide unit and another hydroxyl group on either C4 or C6
• Glycogen, starch, cellulose, chitin are examples of polysaccharides.
• Carbohydrate - A type of organic compound that contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are often called sugar and starches.
• Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy (containing two or more hydroxyl group) aldehyde or ketones, or compounds that can be hydrolyzed to them
• Classification of carbohydrates are: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars with only one sugar molecule per molecule. Examples include glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose, etc.
• Monosaccharides have only one sugar molecule while oligosaccharides have several sugar molecules joined together
• Polysaccharides are made up of many monosaccharides linked together through glycosidic bonds. Some common examples include amylose, amylopectin, cellulose, glycogen, etc.
• Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units joined through a condensation reaction between the anomeric carbon atom of one unit and another alcohol group on the other unit. Example is sucrose, maltose, lactose
• Healthy sources of carbohydrates include both sources- animal and plant products.
• The main function of carbohydrates is to serve as energy source for cells.
• Unhealthy sources are those that is highly processed. Ex. White bread, white rice, and white sugar, pastries.
• Glycemic index (GI): A measure of how quickly foods raise blood glucose levels compared with pure glucose. High GI foods cause rapid spikes in blood glucose levels followed by crashes, leading to hunger and overeating. Low GI foods release glucose slowly into the bloodstream, providing sustained energy without causing insulin surges or crashes.
• Sugars can be classified based on their chemical structure, solubility, sweetness, and physical properties.
• Fiber: The indigestible portion of plants that helps prevent constipation, lowers cholesterol, stabilizes blood sugar, and reduces risk of heart disease and cancer.
• Glycemic Index is a rating system for foods containing carbohydrates. It show how quickly each food affects your blood sugar (glucose) level when that food is eaten on its own.
• Good carbs have a LOW glycemic index, while Bad carbs have HIGH glycemic index.
• A high-glycemic diet has been linked to an increased risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain types of cancer.
• Low-glycemic diets may improve insulin sensitivity, reduce inflammation, lower triglycerides, and promote weight loss.
• Monosaccharides - simplest carbohydrate generally have 3 to 6 Carbon atoms with an aldehyde (first carbon has a carbonyl group) or ketone (second carbon has a carbonyl group) ending and many -OH groups.
• Aldose: A sugar with a carboxyl group on the 1st carbon atom, contains aldehyde (CHO group).

  Ketose: A sugar with a carboxyl group on the 2nd carbon atom, contains ketone (CO group)
• Simplest form of aldose: glyceraldehyde (first member of the family)

  Simplest form of ketose: dihydroxyacetone (first member of the family)
• Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide found in nature
• Constitutional Isomer - A molecule with the same molecular formula but a different structural formula.
• Stereoisomers are compounds that have the same chemical composition but differ only in their spatial arrangement of atoms.
• Enantiomers are stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of one another.
• The D/L system is used to designate enantiomers based on whether they rotate plane-polarized light to the right (+) or left (-), respectively.
• Structural Isomers:

  Chain Isomerism - have the same molecular formula but different arrangements or branches
• Structural Isomers:

  Functional group - isomers have the same formula but different functional groups.
• Structural Isomers:

  Positional Isomerism - same number and type of carbon atoms, but the position of substituents differs.
• for carbohydrates the suffix is -ose

  
• for carbohydrates the suffix is -ose

  A) Prop

  B) Pent

  C) Hep

  
• Monosaccharides are polar compounds with high melting points and are used as building blocks for carbohydrates
• Chirality centers has carbon with four different attachments.
• D - OH is on the right

  L - OH is on the left
• The chiral carbon that is the farthest from the CHO or CO is the one that determines if it is L or D
• All naturally occurring sugars are monosaccharides, except for fructose, which is a disaccharide
• All naturally occurring sugars are D sugars.
• Normal blood glucose level: 70-110 mg/dL