PR1 - Exam Reviewer

• Probability sampling


  Every member of the target population has a known chance of being included in the sample
• Probability sampling methods


  • Simple random sampling
  • Systematic sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Cluster sampling
• Systematic sampling


  1. Random start

  2. Selection of every kth element from that point onwards

  3. Where k = N / n, where k is the ratio of sampling frame size N and the desired sample size n, and is formally called the sampling ratio
• Simple random sampling


  Unbiased representation of a group, fair way to select a sample from a larger population since every member has an equal chance of getting selected
• Purpose of simple random sampling

  Equal chance
• Non-probability sampling


  Researcher selects samples based on subjective judgment rather than random selection, less stringent method that depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers
• Consecutive sampling


  Non-probability sampling method very similar to convenience sampling, researcher picks a single person or group, conducts research over a period, analyzes results, then moves on to another subject or group if needed
• Sampling frame


  List of individuals from which the sample will be selected
• Stratified sampling


  Researchers divide a population into homogeneous subpopulations called strata based on specific characteristics
• Primary data


  First hand data gathered by the researcher himself, e.g. surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaire, personal interview
• Secondary data


  Data collected by someone else earlier, e.g. magazines, newspapers, books, journals, published or unpublished
• Data collection plan


  Outline the steps and procedures for collecting data
• Observational method


  Observing and recording behavior in a natural setting
• Ethical data collection


  • Obtaining consent, ensuring anonymity, being transparent about how data is used, avoiding data misuse
• Data collection instrument


  Tools and methods used to gather and record information for research or evaluation
• Structured interviews


  Appropriate for quantitative data collection
• Unstructured interviews


  Appropriate for more detail, following up on prior research, or looking for qualitative data
• Triangulation in data collection


  Use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena
• Qualitative data collection


  Gathering non-numerical information, such as words, images, and observations, to understand individuals' attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, and motivations in a specific context
• Coding in qualitative research


  Process of labeling and organizing qualitative data to identify different themes
• Thematic analysis


  Method of analyzing qualitative data by closely examining the data to identify common themes - topics, ideas and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly
• Data interpretation


  Process of reviewing data and arriving at relevant conclusions using various analytical research methods
• Data analysis


  Assists researchers in categorizing, manipulating data, and summarizing data to answer critical questions
• Results in research


  Summarizes and presents the findings of the study to put them in context with the research question(s), presented in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation
• Conclusion in research


  Helps the reader understand why the research should matter to them, restates the thesis, synthesizes or summarizes major points, makes the context of the argument clear
• APA (American Psychological Association) Style


  Widely used in the social sciences, business, and some of the life sciences
• MLA (Modern Language Association) format


  Style of crediting sources, typically used for research papers for English Composition and other communication classes
• Qualitative research


  A naturalistic inquiry, because the data collection strategies used are interactive to discover the natural flow of the events and processes
• Qualitative research


  The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting
• Qualitative research


  • Subjective
  • Research questions: What? Why? How?
  • Literature review may be done as study progresses
  • Develops theory
• Quantitative research


  • Objective
  • Research questions: How many?
  • Literature review must be done early in study
  • Test theory
• Qualitative research


  • Interpretive
  • Report rich narrative, individual interpretation
  • Basic element of analysis is words/ideas
  • Researcher as Participant
  • Research questions
  • Reasoning is dialectic and inductive
• Quantitative research


  • Measurable
  • Report statistical analysis
  • Basic element of analysis is numbers
  • Researcher as separate
  • Hypothesis
  • Reasoning is logistic and deductive
• Qualitative research


  • Describes meaning, discovery
  • Patterns and theories developed for understanding a phenomenon
  • Flexible approach: natural setting (process oriented)
  • Sample size is not a concern; seeks "informally rich" sample
• Quantitative research


  • Establishes relationships, causation
  • Generalizations leading to prediction, explanation, and understanding
  • Highly controlled setting: experimental setting (outcome oriented)
  • Sample size is important
• Predispositions of quantitative and qualitative modes of inquiry

  • Assumptions
  • Purpose
  • Approach
• Themes of qualitative research

  • Naturalistic Inquiry
  • Inductive Analysis
  • Holistic perspective
  • Qualitative data
  • Personal contact
  • Dynamic system
  • Unique case orientation
  • Context sensitivity
  • Emphatic neutrality
  • Design flexibility
• Purposeful sampling strategies


  • Site Selection
  • Comprehensive sampling
  • Maximum variation sampling
  • Network sampling
  • Extreme-case sampling
  • Intense-case sampling
  • Typical-case sampling
  • Unique-case sampling
  • Reputational-case sampling
  • Critical-case sampling
  • Concept/theory-based sampling
• Data collection techniques


  • Participant Observation and Fieldwork
  • In-depth Interview
  • Document Review or Analysis
• Types of interview questions


  • Background or demographic questions
  • Knowledge questions
  • Experience or behavior questions
  • Opinion or values questions
  • Feelings questions