theories of crime unit 2

• Jacobs XYY theory

  • Jacobs XYY theory is a biological theory and also a genetic theory
  • It suggests that criminals are born criminals as it is in their genes suggesting criminality is innate
  • XYY syndrome is a rare chromosomal disorder that only affects males. It is caused by the presence of an extra y chromosome.
  • Individuals with XYY have specific traits such as increased testosterone which leads to increased aggression, very tall and a high BMI, severe acne in adolescence, learning difficulties, behavioural problems like impulsivity, immature, unstable and have a high sex drive
• Evaluating Jacobs XYY theory

  • One strength is that there is supporting evidence. According to a study led by Jacob, individuals with XYY syndrome were overrepresented in the prison population. The study found that 15 out of 1,000 individuals in prison had the syndrome compared to 1 out of 1,000 in the general public. Also Alder argued that aggressive behaviour may be partly determined by genetic factors, suggesting a genetic basis for criminal tendencies. Therefore, this means there is a potential link between XYY syndrome and an increased propensity for criminal behaviour
• Evaluating Jacobs XYY theory

  • One limitation is that XYY syndrome is only specific to males and doesn't explain female criminality. If aggression and criminality were solely based on the presence of an extra Y chromosome, it wouldn't apply to females and Y is the male chromosome. This underscores the need for a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing criminal behaviour.
• Evaluation of Jacobs XYY theory

  One limitation is this theory can oversimplify factors affecting criminality. The case of Richard Speck is often linked with Jacobs XYY theory however, he didn't have the syndrome. This example illustrates the dangers of oversimplification and the need to consider multiple factors when exploring the relationship between genetics and criminal behaviour.
• Evaluating Jacobs XYY theory

  • One limitation is not all men with XYY syndrome commit crimes or exhibit aggressive behaviour. The presence of an extra Y chromosome doesn't guarantee criminality which is shown as many people with XYY syndrome lead law abiding lives. Furthermore, the theory doesn't explain aggression and criminal behaviour in individuals without XYY syndrome. Many people who commit crimes don't have XYY syndrome, indicating that a singular genetic factor can't account for the entire spectrum of criminal behaviour.
• Physiological theories

  • A type of theory within biological theories
  • This theory argues that human biology determines physiology and criminality, suggesting criminals have different physiology to non-criminals.
  • The two physiological theories are Lombroso's and Sheldon's theory
• Genetic theories

  • A type of theory within biological theories.
  • This theory suggests that criminals are born criminals as it is in their genes, suggesting criminality is innate
  • The genetic theory is Jacob's XYY theory
• Lombroso's theory

  • Lombroso's theory is a biological theory and a physiological theory
  • Lombroso pioneered the use of scientific methods in criminality
  • Lombroso argued that the criminal is a separate species from non criminals as they are believed to be between modern and primitive humans
  • He believed criminals had 'atavistic' features which made up the 'criminal type'
  • Lombroso believed 'born criminals' had certain 'stigmata' like a sloping forehead, receding chin, long arms and short legs etc
• Evaluating Lombroso's theory

  • One strength is that it introduced the role of biology in criminal behaviours. Lombroso was the first to use scientific methods to study crime as he used offenders criminal records to explore their criminality. By arguing offenders don't freely choose to commit crimes, Lombroso was first to suggest that factors outside the offenders control may be partly to blame. Therefore, Lombroso opened a door for criminologists to explore more options as to why people become criminals
• Evaluating Lombroso's theory

  • One limitation is that it supports the use of eugenics to prevent crime. Eugenics refers to efforts to improve the genetic quality of a human population by selective breeding. Eugenics control who can and can't have children to create a healthier, smarter and better society. Eugenics have mostly been implemented in unethical and coercive ways which leads to significant harm or violence to human rights. As a result, eugenics is widely condemmed today. Therefore, Lombroso's theory is highly unethical and wouldn't be reliable in todays society.
• Evaluating Lombroso's theory

  • One limitation is that Lombroso only studied convicted criminals. Due to this, he argued that people with atavistic features are criminals. This can lead to discrimination against those with similar features. Also, Lombroso portrayed criminal behaviour as predetermined by biological factors and ignored the influence of social, economic and environmental factors. This means Lombroso's theory cant be reliable as he wasn't analysing the whole picture and their was potentially bias.
• Sheldon's somatotypes theory

  • Sheldon's theory is a biological theory and a physiological theory
  • Sheldon believed that personality types are associated with a person's body type (somatotype).
  • He believed criminals are domineering, assertive, thrill seeking, competitive, risk taking and enjoy physical activity
  • Sheldon believed there were 3 basic somatotypes : endomorphs, mesomorphs and ectomorphs
• Sheldon's somatotypes theory - the three somatotypes

  • Endomorphs are described as having soft, round physiques with a tendency to carry extra body fat. They are also relaxed and sociable
  • Mesomorphs are described as having a muscular and athletic build. They are domineering, assertive, thrill seeking, competitive, risk taking and enjoy physical activity. These are most likely to be criminals.
  • Ectomorphs are described as having a slim figure, fragile, linear, introverted and artistic. These are the least likely to be criminals
• Evaluating Sheldon's somatotypes theory

  • One strength is that there is supporting evidence. According to Gleuk & Gleuk, individuals who were mesomorphs were overrepresented in the prison population. The study found that 60% of the prison population were mesomorphs. This could mean there is a potential link between somatotypes and criminality. However, it must be taken into consideration that offenders may develop the mesomorph body type in prison which may weaken Sheldon's theory.
• Evaluating Sheldon's somatotypes theory

  • One strength is its real world application. Some famous criminals, like Ted Bundy, match to Sheldon's mesomorph theory that they are assertive, thrill seeking and most likely to be criminals. Therefore, Sheldon's theory may be more reliable than Lombroso's or Jacob's as it has statistics and evidence to support the theory
• Evaluating Sheldon's somatotypes theory

  • One limitation is there may be some bias. Sheldon only studied convicted criminals and there may have been biased representation as he only studied what would support his theory. For example, Sheldon didn't study non-convicted criminals. Sheldon doesn't account for endomorphs or ectomorph criminals meaning the theory is outdated due to the world becoming broader for types of crimes and criminals
• Biological social policy of crime - Eugenics

  • Eugenics is a term that refers to efforts to improve the genetic quality of a population by selective breeding.
  • The idea behind eugenics is that is that by controlling who can and cant have children, society will become healthier, smarter and better in some way.
  • Methods to achieve this are selective breeding, sterilization, marriage restrictions, institutionalisation / segregation, positive eugenics programmes, prenatal testing and selective abortion
• Learning theories - Behaviourism

  • Behaviourism is an individualistic theory
  • Skinner studied operant conditioning which is learning through punishments and reinforcements
  • The idea is if behaviour is reinforced it will be repeated
  • The skinner box was a specially designed box which he placed a rat in. It featured a lever which would reward the rat with food once pressed. It also featured an electric grid which would administer a mild electric shock if the lever wasn't pressed.
  • Using this, skinner demonstrated how animals learn to associate actions with consequences
• Learning theories - Behaviourism

  • positive reinforcement is receiving a reward
  • negative reinforcement is avoiding something unpleasant
  • positive punishment is giving an undesireable consequence e.g. community sentence and dicharge.
  • negative punishment is removing a pleasant stimulus e.g. prison and financial penalty
• Evaluating behaviourism

  • One strength of behaviourism is its real world application. The principles of operant conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real world behaviours and problems. Token economy systems reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that are exchanged for privileges. This is successfully used in prisons and psychiatric institutions. However, Token economy requires very controlled environments and don't necessarily have benefits outside prison meaning the theory may lack ecological validity.
• Evaluating behaviourism

  • One limitation of behaviourism is that it is a form of environmental determinism. The theory sees all behaviour as determined by past decisions that have been conditioned and ignores any influence that free will may have on behaviour. This theory takes the blame away from criminals and puts it on society.
• Evaluating behaviourism

  • One strength of behaviourism is it uses well controlled research. The theory has focused on the careful measurements of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings. This would suggest the theory has scientific credibility. However, this theory may simplify learning and important influences on behaviour like mental processes. Also, the theory suggests the process that governs learning is the same in all species so they used animals as test subjects. This means it's hard to extrapolate to human behaviour and therefore can't tell us much about criminality.
• Learning theories - social learning theory

  • Social learning theory is an individualistic theory
  • Bandura believed that learning occurs in a social context through observation and imitation of others behaviours.
  • People observe behaviour and take note of its consequences. If it is seen to be rewarded it is likely to be imitated and this is known as vicarious reinforcement.
  • People are likely to imitate those whom they identify with . Such role models are similar to the observer, attractive and of high status. This may explain how children who are surronded by crime tend to grow up to be criminals.
• Learning theories - Social learning theory Bandura's study results

  • Children who observed the aggressive model were far more aggressive than those who didn't
  • All children were more likely to imitate models who were seen to be reinforced
  • Boys were more likely to imitate same sex models than girls.
  • Girls imitated more verbally aggressive acts whereas boys imitated more physically aggressive acts
  • Behaviour that was seen to be punished decreased the likelihood of it being imitated
• Evaluating Social learning theory

  • One strength is its real world application. Social learning principles can account for how children learn from people around them, as well as through the media, possibly explaining how cultural norms are transmitted like FGM. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours like how some children come to normalise criminal behaviours by imitating family members and role models in the media.
• Evaluating social learning theory

  • One limitation is it relies too heavily on controlled lab studies. Many of Bandura's ideas were developed through the observation of children's behaviour in lab settings which creates the problem of demand characteristics. The purpose of a bobo doll is to hit so the children may have been behaving as they thought was expected. Therefore, the research may tell us little about how children learn aggression in everyday life. Also, not everyone imitate criminal influences which may suggest some people are biologically predisposed to learn criminal behaviour.
• Evaluating Social learning theory

  • One strength is the theory can explain the negative influence of the media. In the 1960s, there was the introduction of crime dramas and legal shows depicting crime. Overtime, these shows have become more violent, shocking and gruesome. From the 1960s to 1990s, there is a positive correlation between these crime dramas and the US violent crime rate. This theory could explain this positive correlation as it suggests more people are observing and imitating violent crime depicted on TV
• Psychodynamic theory

  • The psychodynamic theory is an individualistic theory
  • Freud believed the mind was made up of the conscious, preconscious and the unconscious
  • Freud believed the personality is made up of the ID, Ego and superego
• Psychodynamic theory - the ID

  • ID - personality construct we are born with and the energy of it is called the labido. It operates on the pleasure principle and demands instant gratification. It is the source of primal wishes, desires and fears
• Psychodynamic theory - the superego

  • Superego - develops around the age of 5 and is mostly the result of us internalising rules passed down from parents and society. Freud called this the internalised parent and it operates on the morality principle as it is the internalised sense of right and wrong. Punishes the ego and opposes the ID.
• Psychodynamic theory - The Ego

  • Ego - Operates on the reality principle and is the mediator between the ID and Superego. It attempts to make our desires socially acceptable
• Psychodynamic theory - types of superego

  • Weak superego - less guilt about criminal activities and hurting others
  • Too harsh superego - high feelings of guilt and a need for punishment
  • Deviant superego - socialised into a deviant moral code. They identify with parents but if they are criminals it can be transferred
• Evaluating the psychodynamic theory

  • One strength is its developmental perspective.This role emphasises the role of early childhood experiences, especially relationships with parental figures, in shaping personality and behaviour. By tracing the roots of criminal tendencies to formative years, the psychodynamic theory provides a developmental perspective. This helps identify potential risk factors and allow for intervention strategies aimed at addressing issues during cruical stages of psychological development.
• Evaluating the psychodynamic theory

  • One strength is its influence on psychotherapy. Freud's work laid the foundation for psychotherapy, contributing significantly to the field of mental health. Psychodynamic principles are integrated into various theraputic approaches, aiding individuals in understanding and resolving unconscious conflicts. This thereputic application highlights the practical utility of psychodynamic concepts in addressing criminal behaviour within a clinical setting.
• Evaluating the psychodynamic theory

  • One limitation is its lack of testibility. The abstract nature of many psychodynamic concepts like the ID, Ego and Superego are unconscious and makes them challenging to test or falsify through empirical research. the lack of operational definitions and clear criteria for measurements hinders the theory's scientific rigour. This limitation diminishes its standing in comparison to more empirically validated theories in the study of criminal behaviour.
• Eysenck theory

  • Eysenck originally argued that the great variation between people's personalities could be reduced to just two dimensions, which related to the underlying functions of the individuals nervous system
  • Eysenck believed high extraversion scores and high neuroticism scores lead to criminal tendencies
• Eysenck theory - extraversion

  • Extraversion - people with high extraversion scores are sociable, active, lively and sensaation seeking. Extraversion is determined by the overall level of arousal in the persons central nervous system. They have low level of arousal and therefore need more stimulation from their environment
• Eysenck theory - Neuroticism

  • Neuroticism - people with high neuroticism scores are anxious, depressed and react very strongly to oversize stimuli. Neuroticism is determined by the overall level of labiliy in the persons central nervous system.
• Eysenck theory - Psychoticism

  • Eyesnck later added a third dimenson known as psychoticism. People who score high on psychoticism are agressive, antisocial, cold and egocentric
• Evaluating Eysenck theory

  • One strength is that it is a holistic theory. This theory takes into account all aspects of human development like nature and nurture. He argued biological factors affect whether someone is an introvert or an extrovert and socialisation affects whether someone is able to deny gratification