educ 101

• Intelligence is a very general mental capability that, among other things,

  involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly,

  comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience.
• Intelligence - It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts.

  Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our

  surroundings—“catching on,” “making sense” of things, or “figuring out”

  what to do (Gottfredson, 1997, p. 13).
• Adaptive view of intelligence views it as organism’s ability

  to adapt, or to solve the problem that it faces; focusing on adaptation recognizes different organisms (and people) must solve different survival problems
• 2 Components of Intelligence: Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized Intelligence
• Fluid Intelligence

  > application of reasoning skills to novel situations that includes reasoning and problem solving

  > linked to working memory
• Crystallized Intelligence

  > linked with long-term memory or knowledge  .
• Spearman developed factor analysis to analyze correlations among test scores, in

  hopes of determining whether multiple factors are necessary
• Spearman proposed that two factors underlie test performance; g, or general

  intelligence, a common factor that applies to performance on all tests; s a specific

  factor, unique to a particular test
• g can be thought of as a cognitive capability that cannot be directly observed, but that accounts for all sorts of intelligent behavior and learning.
• experts would agree that intelligence can be domain-specific, that is

  mathematics, literacy and social competence.
• • Through experience and practice, learners can have high levels of expertise in some domains without having high g.

  • Through effort, one can develop expertise in a domain without high g.
• Analytic

  > ability to recognize and define a problem, generate a solution,

  and evaluate progress toward a solution.

  > measured on typical intelligence
• Robert Sternberg’s 3 Components of Successful Intelligence: Analytic, Practical, and Creative
• Practical

  > includes putting ideas

  into practice in the real

  world, being street smart,

  selecting activities and

  settings that match one’s

  abilities, and changing

  settings as much as

  possible to match one’s

  abilities.
• Creative

  involves generating new or different ideas— creating,

  inventing, discovering, or hypothesizing.
• Gardner’s theory of intelligence

  that proposes that there are

  various independent

  intelligences rather than just a

  dominant g factor.

  Gardner’s theory has influenced

  educators at all levels to

  expand their curriculum focus

  from reading, writing, and

  arithmetic to emphasize art,

  music, athletics, and social skills

  as well
• Linguistic - Capacity to use language to express oneself and to understand others
• Logical/mathematical - capacity to understand underlying principles of cause-and-effect, logic, number manipulation
• Spatial - ability to visualize objects and space; perceive relationships between parts of an object or space
• Musical - sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, melody, timbre (quality of sound), and tone color
• Bodily kinesthetic - ability to control body movements and handle objects skillfully
• Intrapersonal - ability to be self-aware and introspective
• Interpersonal - ability to interact effectively with other people
• Sternberg’s and Gardner’s

  theory of intelligence are

  helpful because they

  emphasize that there are

  many kinds of abilities, not

  just general intelligence.
• However, g remains

  important because it is

  associated with academic

  success, which is valued by

  society and linked to

  socioeconomic advancement.
• Modern intelligence testing was launched in 1905 by Binet, who

  devised a scale to measure a child’s mental age.
• • Terman revised the Binet scale to produce the Stanford-Binet in

  1916, which introduced the intelligence quotient (IQ).
• • In 1939, Wechsler published an improved measure of intelligence for adults, which the deviation IQ score based on the normal distribution.
• Measurement of Intelligence

  Individual Intelligence Tests

  > administered by a trained psychologist to one child at a time.

  > are expensive to administer because they require several hours of a trained professional’s time.

  Group Intelligence Tests

  > are paper-and-pencil tests that can be administered to large groups.

  > referred to school ability tests or academic aptitude tests.
• Modern deviation IQ scores indicate where people fall in the normal distribution for their age.

  • Individuals’ IQ scores can vary across testing occasions, but intelligence tests tend to have very high reliability.

  • There is ample evidence that IQ tests are valid measures of academic/verbal intelligence, but they do not tap social or practical intelligence.

  • IQ scores are correlated with occupational attainment, but doubts have been raised about how well they predict performance within a specific

  occupation.

  • IQ tests are not widely used in most non-Western cultures
• Habituation is a reduction in attention to a repeatedly presented or continuously

  available stimulus (the familiar stimulus), which could be a picture of a face or a checkerboard pattern.
• Dishabituation attention that has become habituated is renewed after a change int he stimulus.
• Core knowledge refers to innate ideas, or concepts and principles that are genetically preprogrammed in the human brain.
• GENES

  > Higher g could be due to

  differences in information

  processing, such as working

  memory and processing speed,

  which could be due to brain

  differences, such as dendrite

  branching and myelination.

  > g, is substantially heritable

  estimated at 0.20 to 0.80
• HOME ENVIRONMENT

  > quality of a child’s home

  environment predicts later

  intelligence

  > Home attributes linked to

  intelligence include learning

  materials in the home (e.g., books, magazines, computers), parent–child conversations, and trips, such as to museums
• SCHOOLING

  > School attendance also affects

  intelligence. Students who drop

  out of school early, are chronically absent, and delay starting kindergarten have lower intelligence than comparable peers.

  > Children who are judged as not

  ready to begin school most need

  to
• 
  

  Group Diversity in Intelligence: Gender, Socioeconomic Status, Culture, and Ethnicity.
• TEST BIAS

  > exists when a test unfairly penalizes a group of test

  takers because of their gender, SES, cultural background, or other characteristic that is not relevant to the purpose of the test.

  > A type of test bias is predictive bias, which refers to

  whether members of two groups who have the same

  score on a test are predicted to have the same outcome, like grades or probability of attending college.
• Learning Disabilities (LD)

  > discrepancy between a

  student’s achievement and

  intelligence or as lack of

  response to instruction that is

  effective for most other

  students.

  > Practicing Inclusion—How to

  Help Learners with a Learning

  Disability

  > Response to Intervention

  (RTI)
• Infancy and Toddlerhood

  (Prenatal to 2 Years)

  Individual differences in speed of habituation predict intelligence years later.

  Habituation and recognition memory studies demonstrate that 3- to 5-month-olds have many cognitive abilities like object permanence, a sense of

  time and quantity, understanding of causation

  reasoning, and categorization.