Modern Period

• Germ Theory

  Pasteur's theory that microorganisms cause disease, but did not explain hereditary diseases
• DNA

  Double helix model of DNA identified by Watson and Crick based on X-rays from Franklin and Wilkins
• The Human Genome Project

  1. Conducted by 18 teams of scientists from 1990-2000 to decode and map the human genome

  2. Helped identify mistakes in the genetics of people suffering from genetic diseases such as Huntington's disease
• Understanding DNA

  Did not make it easier to treat genetic conditions, but helped identify ways to prevent certain hereditary diseases
• Identifying a woman's likelihood of inheriting breast cancer

  Enabled them to enact preventative measures before it arises
• Gene therapy is far from complete and research continues
• Factors that led to development

  • Technology: electronic microscope developed in Germany 1931 could magnify up to 10 million times
  • Teamwork: Watson and Crick, Wilkins and Franklin
• 1. rays

  Developed by Willheli Rontgen in 1895, rays of light could pass through the body and appear on the other side, used to diagnose broken bones and shrapnel
• CT and MRI scans

  Developed 1970s, use magnets and radio waves to give images of internal organs and soft tissue, used to diagnose soft tissue damage, tumours and growths
• Ultrasound

  Developed 1940s, uses sound waves to create an image, used to diagnose kidney stones and monitor baby development in the womb
• Electrocardiogram (ECG)

  Developed 1900s, uses electrical impulses to measure heart activity, used to measure and diagnose irregular heart movement
• Endoscope

  Developed 1900s, a small camera on the end of a long thin tube, used to see inside the body and carry out non-invasive surgery
• Blood test

  Developed 1930s, blood extracted via syringe, used to diagnose illnesses, identify conditions, and measure glucose and cholesterol levels
• Blood pressure monitor

  Developed 1880s, measures the pressure of blood in the body, used to diagnose stress, heart/circulatory disease, diabetes, and kidney stones
• Magic Bullet


  A chemical cure used to attack microbes that cause infection, without any side effects
• 1st Magic Bullet: Salvarson 606


  • Created: 1909 by Paul Ehrlic
  • Uses: to treat syphilis
• 2nd Magic Bullet: Prontosil


  • Created: 1932 by Gerhard Donagk
  • Uses: cure for blood poisoning
• Discovery of Penicillin


  1. 1928 Fleming noticed a mould (pericillin) had killed a petri dish full of staphylococcus bacteria

  2. Fleming published his discovery, but developed it no further as he was unsure if it would work on humans

  3. Florey and chain worked to isolate penicillin from the bacteria in order to grow it in higher quantities

  4. May 1939 they successfully used penicillion on mice

  5. Feb 1941-tested on Albert Alexander, who had blood poisoning, successful but not enough doses to sustain him
• Mass Production of Penicillin

  1. Florey first approached British pharmaceutical companies who denied help

  2. July 1941. Florey approached US pharmaceutical companies and altogether 21 pharmaceutical companies, scientific research groups, and numerous government agencies were funded to oversee the mass production of penicillin

  3. 1943. enough penicillin to treat 2.3 million casualties during D-day
• Antibiotics


  • Approx, 200 million lives saved since the start of the 'antibiotic age'
  • Up to 1960s 14 new types of antibiotics were developed including streptomycin Oct 1943 - 1st antibiotic cure for tuberculosis
  • 1945-Hodgkin proved penicillin's chemical structure - development synthetic antibiotics
• The NHS


  • Founded in 1948 by the Government
  • Aim: to provide care from "cradle to grave"
  • Provides: hospital care, general practitioners (GPS), ambulance services, health visitors
• Problems facing the early NHS (1950s)

  • Outdated hospital facilities
  • Most hospitals only in London and the South-East
  • They were short staffed leading to increased waiting times
  • Outdated practitioners
• 1960s Improvements to the NHS


  • Hospitals built across Britain
  • GPs were given incentives to make sure they stayed up to date with research
• Government Prevention Strategies


  1. 1942-diptheria vaccine made compulsory

  2. 1950-polio vaccine made compulsory

  3. 1956 · Clean Air Act passed to prevent smog caused by air pollution

  4. 1968-Second Clean Air Act passed

  5. 2006-Health Act passed

  6. 2007 made it illegal to smoke in all enclosed workplaces
• The Modern Period


  Lung Cancer
• 85% of lung cancer cases are due to smoking
• By the time lung cancer is diagnosed, it's often too late to treat
• Diagnosis


  1. Initial diagnosis = X-ray (however they were not detailed enough)

  2. PET-CT Scans

  3. Bronchoscopes
• Treatment


  1. Surgery to remove tumours

  2. Transplants - cancerous cells replaced by healthy cells from a donor

  3. Radiotherapy - radiation is passed through the tumour to shrink it

  4. Chemotherapy - injections of drugs to shrink the tumour before surgery or if surgery is not possible

  5. Pharmacogenomics - using a patient's DNA to tailor treatment to an individual (currently under research)
• Government Prevention Strategies


  • 1950s showed harmful impact of smoking
  • Government slow to respond because of industry value
  • 1985 Tax on Tobacco - Government make £4 billion
  • 1965- Tobacco Adverts Banned
  • 2005 - Cigarette Adverts Banned + cigarettes taken off display in shops + increased tax on tobacco products + started stop smoking campaign
  • 2007- purchasing age raised from 16 to 18
  • 2015- banned smoking in cars carrying children