Feminism

• Feminism aims to achieve equality for women within all spheres of society.
• Mary Wollstonecraft: a vindication of the rights of women
• liberal feminists believe that women should have the freedoms needed to be autonomous rational individuals in society.
• Early feminism


  Feminist ideas began in the Enlightenment period. The first key feminist text was by Mary Wollstonecraft, "A Vindication of the Rights of Women" in 1792.

  Women were still treated as second-class citizens during the 19th century across the world.Women had no domestic rights, legal protection or political voice.

  Feminism did not emerge as an ideology until the 20th century and the term has only become commonly accepted since the 1960s, according to Heywood.
• 21st century feminism


  Feminism embraces a diverse range of beliefs and goals. These have multiplied and become more complex over time, leading to criticisms of fragmentation and incoherence.

  But, women's issues and feminist perspectives are still significant in the 21st century. Examples include the #MeToo movement, demands to end the pay gap, new legislation on domestic violence in the UK and the campaign to stop changes to abortion laws in some US states.
• Sex and Gender


  Sex refers to biological differences between men and women. Gender, on the other hand, refers to the different roles that society ascribes to men and women.
• Biology vs society

  Sex or biology is natural and unalterable e.g. our genes, hormones and sexual organs.

  Gender roles are defined by society and culture for men and women, usually through stereotypes such as "masculine" and "feminine".
• Masculine vs feminine


  So-called masculine traits, such as competitiveness and aggression, are seen as superior to so-called feminine traits.

  Feminine traits are usually portrayed as passivity and submissiveness.

  Conservative thinkers argued that the social roles men and women have traditionally taken are those which are best suited to their nature e.g. men as decision-makers.
• Feminist replies to sex and gender


  Feminist thinkers challenged this, emphasising that a woman's sex should not determine her social position.

  Gender roles are imposed on women, with no resemblance to their natural abilities, potential or personal ambitions.

  So, gender equality is the idea that women should enjoy equal rights, entitlements and opportunities.
• androgyny or personhood


  This says that biological differences are minimal and human beings should not be judged or shaped by their sex but as people.

  However, difference feminists disagree, arguing that there are essential biological differences between men and women, which alter their characters and personalities.
• Responses to androgyny

  Liberal feminists argue for equal rights and say women do not need to accept traditional female responsibilities e.g. to stay at home.

  Socialist feminists argue that gender is less significant than class and "class politics" should be the key feminist focus.

  Radical feminists say that a child's upbringing should be a responsibility of the community or the state, not women.
• Responses of different feminists to the patriarchy


  Liberal feminists are most concerned about the distribution of rights and their goal is to achieve greater political power for women in the patriarchal system.

  Radical feminists argue patriarchy operates in all areas of society, culture and the personal sphere - it must be overthrown.

  Socialist feminists argue patriarchy revolves around capitalism and class inequality.
• Public vs private


  This idea was first expressed by Carol Hanisch in 1969.

  Conventionally, politics was seen as an activity within the public sphere (e.g. government, the media, work), whilst family life was non-political and private.

  Feminists argued that this divide helped uphold sexual inequality.

  Women were excluded from the 'public' sphere and were confined to a 'private' sphere based around family.

  Feminists sought to challenge the divide between 'public' man and 'private' women.
• Responses of different feminists to the personal is political


  Radical feminists believe we should reconstruct family and domestic life, so there are no separate spheres - traditional 'female' responsibilities should be in the public sphere.

  Socialist feminists see traditional family structures as part of capitalism and its social structures, which causes inequality in private life, so capitalism is the problem to abolish.

  Liberal feminists focus more on the restrictions to women's entry to the public sphere and less on the private sphere.
• Egalitarian feminism


  The main goal of egalitarian feminism is to achieve full equality with men.

  Liberal feminists have emphasised the goal of equal legal and political rights in the public realm.

  Radical feminists extend demands to full equality in the domestic sphere, including sexual equality.

  Socialist feminists believe equal rights have no meaning without full social and economic equality.
• Difference feminists


  Difference feminists disagree with these egalitarian goals and argue that women should not desire to be "like men".

  They believe that men naturally more aggressive, competitive and domineering, whilst women are naturally more empathetic, compassionate and creative than men.

  They should seek a pro-woman position instead and celebrate these differences separately e.g in a "sisterhood".
• Intersectionality: Post-modern thinking


  Recent post-modern thinking criticises earlier feminists for giving too little attention to the plight of the most vulnerable groups of women e.g. black, gay and poor women.

  This led to the new notion of "intersectionality", a term developed by Kimberley Crenshaw in 1989, which focuses on the multiple identities and complex issues of modern life.
• Intersectionality: bell hooks


  bell hooks (she choose lower-case) is a prominent writer on intersectionality.

  She wanted to show how issues of racism and sexism are inextricably linked.

  This has then spawned other women's movements e.g. black, LGBT, working-class and so on, though the danger of this is the perception of further fragmentation of feminism.
• Intersectionality: Identity


  A belief in intersectionality appears to have weakened women's gender identity, though this was never its goal.

  Rather, it strives to modernise thinking to represent more effectively the widely different experiences and identities of women seen in today's world.
• Human nature


  A majority of feminists believe differences between men and women are minimal so gender equality must be the goal.

  A minority of difference feminists believe the biological/psychological differences are significant - so women should pursue a separate course, apart from men.
• The state


  Liberals believe it has a key role in promoting and legislating for gender equality, though radical feminists argue this is insufficient alone in overthrowing patriarchy.

  Marxist feminists see it as an instrument of class rule and postmodern thinkers, like bell hooks, see the modern state as a legacy of white imperialist rule.
• The state debate


  Most feminists see the state as a potential force for good, in taking more positive action to tackle gender inequality and continuing sexual abuse of women across the world.

  Radical feminists would go much further than liberal feminists in preventing oppression and socialist feminists see it as part of an exploitative capitalist system.
• Society


  All feminists argue women are treated unequally in society.

  Liberal feminists focus on the public sphere, whilst radical feminists focus on the private sphere.

  Post-modern feminists now see society as more complex than gender divisions.

  Difference feminists see a separate course for women in society, free from male dominance and power, whilst egalitarian feminists want to see gender divisions removed at home and in wider society.
• Economy


  Early socialist feminists see this as the main cause of female oppression as women are particularly exploited under capitalism.

  Modern socialists believe the economy and society work together, with patriarchal power a key factor too.

  All feminists want to see all women as economically independent and to see unjustifiable material inequalities end, though often disagree about how this can be best achieved from more reformist liberal views to more revolutionary socialist perspectives.
• Socialist Feminism: Different socialist feminist views


  Some early socialist feminists argued the traditional family should be changed to communal living and 'free love' as advocated by utopian socialists, such as Fourier and Owen.

  Modern socialist feminists do not accept the primacy of class politics over sexual politics but argue that sexual oppression is just as important as class exploitation e.g. as argued by Sheila Rowbotham. They argue that women must remove the social and cultural roots of patriarchy; liberation requires emancipation in all areas, not just economic.
• Socialist Feminism: Perspective


  Supporters of modern capitalism argue it is now equally possible for women to own property and run their own business.

  But, women in half the world are still denied equal land or property rights, according to The World Bank and where these exist, most wealth is still in male hands.
• Radical Feminism: Key ideas of radical feminism


  Patriarchal dominance was evident in all areas of personal life and wider society, according to radical thinkers like Simone de Beauvoir and Germaine Greer.

  They believe social conditioning of men and women takes place everywhere in our society and culture from childhood, so patriarchal values are accepted as the norm.
• Radical Feminism: Radical feminist responses


  Some radical feminists argue that liberation requires 'consciousness-raising' of women, inspired by Marx's theory of class consciousness.

  The emphasis is on developing women's pride, self-worth and self-assertion, to combat male power.

  It is revolutionary, as once women are aware of the daily oppression they face, they can challenge it and remove it.
• Radical Feminism: Separatist views in radical feminism


  Radical feminism has many strands: Some embrace a more 'pro-woman' position, emphasising positive differences between women and men, and sometimes the superiority of women in a sisterhood. Cultural feminism seeks to retreat altogether from what they see as a corrupting male world of aggression and violence, saying "men are the enemy" - Susan Brownmiller. Some advocate political lesbianism, like Ti-Grace Atkinson, with heterosexual behaviour being "male identified" - men keep women in a "constant state of fear of rape".
• Post-Modern Feminism: Gender identity

  They question the idea that there is or ever can be a single-gender identity.

  What it now means to be a woman can have many differing interpretations, as they each have individual circumstances.

  Biological differences are not as clear cut as were once thought e.g. some women cannot give birth.
• Post-Modern Feminism: Intersectionality


  "Woman" as a category is complicated by factors like class, ethnicity, and sexuality, which bell hooks is keen to explore, outside of conventional thinking.

  The term "intersectionality" was developed to recognise this.
• Post-Modern Feminism: Identity in post-modern thinking


  These feminists argue that it cannot be assumed anything is universal e.g. gender oppression and patriarchy, as the world is more complex.

  It becomes impossible and oversimplified to make any generalisations about women, or their status.

  They stress the importance of language and removing terms, which may appear sexist or reinforcing patriarchal attitudes e.g. Chair instead of Chairman.

  It is for each individual woman to define herself and seek her own identity, in order to feel truly liberated.
• Post-Modern Feminism: Countering universalism


  Post-modern thinking is an attempt to counteract the idea that any political ideas can still be seen as universal today, whether it be gender, class, race or religion.

  Our political thinking must reappraise accepted beliefs, with feminism seeking new ways to achieve liberation.
• Charlotte Perkins Gilman 1860-1935 (liberal): Gilman's key ideas


  Sex and domestic economics are hand in hand - for women to survive, they have to depend on their sexuality and body in order to please their husbands.

  Societal pressure - young girls are compelled to conform in society and prepare for motherhood by playing with toys and wearing clothes that are specifically designed for and marketed to them.

  She attacked how Darwin's Theory of Evolution was used to justify male domination at home and in society.

  She argued that women were forced to live a life of domestic servitude, on the grounds this was their true role.
• Charlotte Perkins Gilman 1860-1935 (liberal): Gilman's work


  Gilman criticised how girls were socialised into an expectation of domestic servitude in "The Yellow Wallpaper" (1892) and "Women and Economics" (1898).

  She believed there was no rational reason why women should not play an equal economic role, as they were just as intelligent and capable, so should have equal opportunities.
• Charlotte Perkins Gilman 1860-1935 (liberal): Gilman as a feminist


  Gilman campaigned for more radical ideas on the destruction of the traditional nuclear family, replacing it with communal living and symmetrical roles for men and women.

  Though a liberal reformer, many of her ideas at the time, would have been supported by socialist or radical feminists.
• Simone de Beauvoir 1908 - 1986 (radical): De Beauvoir's key ideas


  Sex versus gender - 'one is not born, but rather becomes a woman'.

  Otherness - men are perceived as the 'norm' and women deviate from this norm.

  She believed women had for too long lived a life according to rules imposed by men, which she saw as "bad faith".
• Simone de Beauvoir 1908 - 1986 (radical): De Beauvoir and the "Other"


  She developed a notion of gender, in which women conformed to an expected role in society, which men controlled e.g. that they should nurture children, which is learned as girls.

  This led to the idea of the "Other" in which men defined women as fundamentally different from the norm and inferior to them.

  Progress could only be made if they became conscious of their own identity, through self-liberation and escaping from a domestic and family role imposed on them by men.
• Kate Millett 1934 - 2017 (radical): Millett's key ideas


  Family - undoing the traditional family was the key to true sexual revolution.

  Portrayal of women in art and literature - she showed how patriarchal culture had produced writers and literary works that were degrading to women.

  Patriarchy - she developed this idea and how "rule by men" operated at all levels in the public and private sphere.
• Kate Millett 1934 - 2017 (radical): Patriarchy and family


  A patriarchal society was based on a strict hierarchy and male dominance, with sexual oppression passing from one generation to the next.

  Men ruled women within the family, through property ownership and male inheritance and in government, by excluding women or determining the rules of power.

  Socialisation of patriarchal attitudes occurred in the family and was reinforced through friends, schools, the media, wider society and culture e.g. in popular literature.