Liberalism

• Individualism


  Individualism places value on the rights of the individual over the rights of the group in society.
• Individualism: Primacy of the individual


  John Stuart Mill argued that "over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign."

  An individual has responsibility for their own actions, and is a rational being - and so an individual's right to choose their own actions should be protected.

  Liberals believe that the individual is an end in themselves, rather than the means to an end. This is a key principle of the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.
• Individualism: Individual vs the State


  Liberals believe that the state should not harm the rights of the individual, and dislike strong and paternalistic states which intervene on individual rights.

  Liberals believe the individual should have as much freedom as possible.

  Some liberal thinkers oppose government intervention in the free market, government welfare and other state policies that restrict individual rights, freedoms or responsibilities.

  Instead, the individual has a responsibility to achieve in society by the strength of their own ability.
• Individualism: Egoistical individualism


  Egoistical individualism is the belief that individual freedom involves satisfying one's own desires and needs.

  More extreme versions of egoistical individualism, such as parts of Thatcherism, don't believe in a society - instead that we live as a collection of rational self-interested individuals.

  This view of liberalism supports a state that is as small as possible, and individuals should have as few state restrictions as possible.

  This view is also known as atomism and is held by classical liberals.
• Individualism: Developmental individualism


  Developmental individualists believe in a society, and although they support the ideas of individualism, they believe that individuals wish to live alongside one another.

  Developmental individualists support more state intervention than egoistical individualists. Developmental individualists support the idea that the state can make individuals more free by providing them with welfare and support.

  Developmental individualism is a view often held by social liberals.
• Freedom or Liberty: Freedom


  Individual freedom is the focus of liberalism.

  However, this does not include unrestricted freedom ('absolute' freedom), as this may harm other people and becomes licence to harm others. Individuals have a right to freedom, but also a duty not to abuse others with it, or limit their freedom.
• Freedom or Liberty: The role of the state


  The state should have a role in ensuring individual liberty, and should not extend beyond what is necessary to ensure individual liberty.

  The extent of the state depends on whether positive or negative liberty is supported.

  The state should guarantee freedom under the law - and so should protect individual freedoms from coercion and external restrictions. For example, the 1st Amendment to the US Constitution protects freedom of religion and freedom of speech.
• Freedom or Liberty: Capitalism


  Liberals believe in the principle of free choice, and therefore that the capitalist system is the best way to ensure individual freedom in society and the economy.

  The capitalist market is based around ideas of free choice.

  Some liberals believe in government interventions in the free market, but all support capitalism in one form or another.
• Freedom or Liberty: The Harm Principle


  John Stuart Mill proposed the 'Harm Principle' to deal with the problem of when it is appropriate for society to restrict individual liberty.

  Individual liberty can be restricted if an individual's actions may risk harm to others.

  This ensures freedom of the community.
• Types of liberty: positive


  Positive liberty is when an individual is given freedom to do as they wish by an authority. For example, the state giving social welfare to an individual may give them the income to do actions they wish to do. Positive liberty supports a larger role for the state.
• Types of liberty: negative


  Negative liberty is when an individual is free from external constraints and interference to do as they wish. For example, freedom from a tyrannical government means that an individual can speak and act as they wish without fear of harm from the government. Negative liberty supports a smaller role for the state.
• The state: a 'necessary evil'


  For Liberals, the state is a necessary evil. Necessary because it provides the structures that avoid disorder and harm to individuals. Evil because it has the power to coerce individuals and restrict individual liberty. Because of this, liberals believe in restricting the power of the state, especially in the economy.
• The state: Paternalism


  Liberals disagree with paternalism - the restriction of an individual's freedom by an external body in the individual's perceived interest. Paternalism does not respect the individual as a rational being and does not respect individual freedom.
• The state: Limiting the state I

  The state should be limited as much as possible.

  Liberals support limiting the state through constitutionalism (having a constitutional-style government, especially one that promotes individual liberty), having an independent judiciary, and supporting the rule of law.

  Some state intervention is needed to keep order in society, but this is minimal.
• The state: Limiting the state II

  Classical liberals support laissez-faire economics and support only limited state intervention in the economy.

  Modern liberals are more likely to support more state interventions in the economy and society to promote positive freedoms.

  Liberals support limited intervention because they see humans as being rational and able to improve themselves. Therefore, we should trust humans to make the right choices when given individual freedom, and the state isn't needed to steer us in the right direction.
• Rationalism


  Being rational means to make decisions based on weighing up all of the possible outcomes with logic and reason, rather than emotion.

  Rationalism supports individual freedom and self-determination (freedom to choose one's own path and future).Humans make decisions and moral choices according to reason and logic, and so must be entrusted to make them free from interference.
• Rationalism: Paternalist ideologies


  Paternalist ideologies such as one-nation conservatism believe that some individuals are not able to make the right, or most rational decisions for themselves and so must be helped.

  Liberalism disagrees with this idea.
• Rationalism: Progressive society


  Liberalism promotes a progressive society, as it supports the idea that individuals are rational rather than ruled by forces out of their control (such as religion).

  As well as this, liberalism supports the idea that no human is less rational than any other, and supports equal rights and freedoms for women, people of all ethnicities and people of all social backgrounds.

  As a result, liberals support progressive societies where all people have the same rights and freedoms.

  Liberals promote tolerance.
• Rationalism: Tolerance


  Tolerance is a willingness to respect opinions, values, customs and beliefs (religious, political etc) with which you disagree.

  Voltaire is associated with tolerance, as his biographer Beatrice Evelyn Hall paraphrased: 'I detest what you say, but shall defend to the death your right to say it' in her 1906 biography of him.

  John Locke is associated with tolerance. He called for Catholic emancipation at a time when people in England were not free to practice Catholicism.
• Equality


  Equality is the belief that all individuals have equal rights, are of equal value, and should be treated equally by society. Liberals believe that all individuals should be treated fairly and impartially.
• Foundational equality


  Foundational equality means the rights that all humans have, simply by being born. These rights cannot be taken away. These foundational rights are also known as natural rights and inalienable rights. The phrase 'inalienable rights' appears in the Declaration of Independence in the American Constitution.
• Socialists and Conservatives on foundational quality


  Socialists: Socialists also believe in foundational equality as they believe all humans are born equal and deserve equal rights & outcomes.

  Conservatives: Conservatives do not believe in foundational equality as they accept inequality as a natural part of society.
• Examples of foundational equality


  The US Declaration of Independence' We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness'.

  The Human Rights Act (HRA) 1998 is centred around foundational equality. The HRA is based upon the European Convention on Human Rights.
• Formal equality


  Formal equality is the idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society.

  Formal equality is different to foundational equality as it means that the state has to provide rights by law to ensure this type of equality.

  Early liberal thinkers such as John Stuart Mill were opposed to formal equality, suggesting mechanisms such as weighted voting, where educated and land-owning voters had more of a say in elections.
• Examples of formal equality


  Formal equality before the law is also part of the Rule of Law, written by A.V. Dicey in Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885).

  The principles within it are considered part of the uncodified (not written down in one place) British constitution.

  The Voting Rights Act 1964 in the US was aimed at providing equal voting rights across the US.
• Equality of Opportunity


  Equality of opportunity is the idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to succeed or fail.

  Equality of Opportunity is aimed at addressing inequalities caused by what TH Green identified as the 'cycle of deprivation' which provides barriers that prevent some people from progressing in life, such as poverty, lack of education and ill health.

  Liberals believe that trying to create equality of outcome would lead to an unacceptable level of state intervention.
• Socialists and Conservatives on equality of opportunity


  Socialists: Democratic socialists believe in Equality of Outcome, where people end up with equal circumstances in terms of wealth and property. Social democrats (another type of socialist) believe in equality of opportunity, like liberals.

  Conservatives: Modern conservatives believe in equality of opportunity. They accept the need for an enabling welfare state, which provides basic welfare to ensure no-one falls below a certain standard of living, and which provides services like universal healthcare & education.
• Examples of equal opportunity


  The HRA enshrines equality of opportunity in UK law.

  The creation of the NHS in 1947 by the Labour government, based on the ideas of Beveridge, a Liberal peer (Lord), commissioned to research the big challenges facing Britain after WWII.

  Liberal PM Gladstone created primary education for working class children, the beginning of universal education in the UK, in 1891.

  Liberal PM Lloyd George introduced National Insurance in 1911 and the People's Budget in 1909, aimed at creating equality of opportunity.
• Examples of equal opportunity


  Sure Start centres introduced by New Labour in 1998 were aimed at ensuring children born into working class families were given an equal start in life.

  The Race Relations Act 1967 was created to provide equality of opportunity regardless of race in the UK.
• Liberal Democracy


  A liberal democracy respects the will of the people and has regular free and fair elections.

  In a liberal democracy the government is held accountable.

  John Stuart Mill argued that democracy helps individuals to develop. By participating in democracy an individual can learn and develop and therefore become more rational and fulfilled.

  Liberals argue that a democracy should have a constitution to ensure that the government's powers are checked.
• Limited government


  Limited government means that the government's role is limited by checks and balances, and a separation of powers to avoid too much power lying with one branch.

  Checks and balances are where the three branches of government (the executive, legislative and judiciary) each have distinct powers to check up on each other's work and ensure there is not too much power in any one branch.

  The separation of powers means that no one person can be in any more than one branch at any one time.
• Examples of limited government

  The US system of government ensures limited government through a system of checks and balances laid out in the Constitution.

  For example, Congress (the legislative branch) makes laws, but the President (executive branch) signs them into law or vetoes (blocks) them. This is laid out in Article I of the Constitution. Congress made the American Healthcare Act (also known as Obamacare) and President Obama signed it into law in 2013
• Examples of separation of powers


  The US system also has a separation of powers, meaning that the Constitution specifies in the first three Articles that no one can serve in more than one branch at any one time. For example, Obama had to resign as Senator for Illinois when he won the Presidential election in 2008.
• Laissez-faire capitalism


  Laissez-faire capitalism is the belief that competition between people, seeking their own profit, benefits all in society.

  Liberals believe in a capitalist economy that has private ownership and is controlled by market forces.

  A free market is one that is left to its own devices and does not have interference from the government. Classical liberals argue that this is the most efficient way to distribute resources in the economy.
• Laissez-faire: supply and demand

  Prices are set by the forces of supply and demand and become stable so that producers and consumers can receive and pay a fair price for their goods and services.In the 'Wealth of Nations' (1776) Adam Smith argued that the 'invisible hand' regulates the market, meaning that there is always an efficient supply, demand, price and distribution of resources.

  Classical liberals argue that a free market promotes freedom and individual responsibility - an individual is able to choose how they engage with the market.
• Keynesianism I

  Keynesianism is based on the ideas of the economist John Maynard Keynes and is an idea supported by modern and social liberals, rather than classical liberals.

  Keynesianism is an economic theory which rejects some ideas of laissez-faire economics.

  Keynesianism rejects the laissez-faire idea that the government should have no involvement in the economy, and that it can correct itself.

  Instead, the government should intervene to stimulate the economy by manipulating demand.
• Keynesianism II


  Supporters of Keynesianism believed that the government should help the economy achieve price stability and full employment.

  This government intervention in the economy helps support some liberal ideas - such as equality of opportunity (by creating full employment), and the idea of the 'enabling state'.
• Meritocracy


  Meritocracy is the idea that individuals should be able to succeed in society on the basis of their ability rather than any other factor.

  Individuals should succeed based on merit rather than where they were born, how much money their parents had, and other circumstances of their birth.

  Individuals should have equal opportunities to succeed, so that those with the most ability are able to.

  Social mobility is important, as anyone should be able to achieve great things.
• Mechanistic theory


  Mechanistic theory is the idea that the state is a man-made creation that individuals create to serve their interests.

  Liberals believe that the state is created by individuals to protect freedom.

  As a result, interactions between individuals can help determine how the state functions.

  The mechanistic theory opposes the organic theory of the state. The organic theory of the state is favoured by conservatives, who believe that the state evolves over time.
• Mechanistic theory example


  The social contract is an example of the mechanistic theory - individuals come together to vote for a government to make laws to uphold individual freedom. The individuals and the government have rights and duties towards each other. If the individuals don't like the actions of the government they can vote it out of power - and therefore change how the state functions.