Lang and Diversity

• How many speakers of English is there in the world?

  Approx 400 million native speakers. And 2 billion+ people speak english in some sort of way
• Why is English such a widespread world language, give 2 reasons:

  • British Empire - former british colonies used English to varying extents
  • Rise of USA - USA has immense cultural and media power that is spreading worldwide.
• What is Lingua Franca?

  a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native language are different
• Where are lingua franca’s necessary?

  Olympics

  International Trade

  Air traffic control
• What is meant by diaspora?

  Means a spreading out from a central point, in English Language, it means english being spread out from England to other points
• What are the 2 levels of diaspora?

  • Level 1 : involved fairly large scale migration of native English speakers from the UK to North America, Australia + New Zealand, and English became their first language
  • Level 2 : During the 18th to 19th Century, people took English to Nigeria, Kenya, India, Singapore etc, leading to the establishment of English as a second language
• (Kachru's Circle of English) Explain the inner circle

  • Definition: Countries where English is the native language (L1 diaspora) for the majority.
  • Examples: UK, USA, Australia, Canada, New Zealand.
  • Key Term – “Norm-providing”:
  • These countries historically set the standards of English (grammar, spelling, pronunciation).
  • Inner Circle varieties are often seen as the “correct” or “proper” English in education and global contexts.
• (Kachru's Circle of English) Explain the outer circle

  • definition : Countries where English is not the mother tongue but has an official/important second language (L2) role, often due to colonisation.
  • Examples: India, Nigeria, Singapore, Kenya.
  • Key Term – “Norm-developing”:
  • Localised varieties emerge, mixing English with indigenous languages (e.g., “Singlish” in Singapore, Indian English idioms).
  • These forms are increasingly independent and developing their own norms, not just copying Inner Circle English.
• (Kachru's circle of english) Explain the Expanding circle:

  • Definition: Countries where English has no historical or governmental role but is learned as a foreign language (EFL) for international use.
  • Examples: China, Japan, Russia, Brazil.
  • Key Term – “Norm-dependent”:
  • These learners often rely on Inner Circle models (e.g., British or American textbooks, teachers, and exams like IELTS).
  • The idea is that English here is dependent on rules set elsewhere, without developing distinct local varieties (though this is increasingly changing).
  • Implication: With globalisation, Expanding Circle users are beginning to shape English use themselves, suggesting the model is outdated.
• Strengths of Kachru's Circle of English

  • Shows how L1 + L2 of diaspora, colonisation, history and politics played a role in history
  • Better than a correct vs incorrect / us vs them approach
  • By recognising “norm-developing,” Kachru challenged the older idea that only British or American English were “proper” forms.
• Weaknesses of Kachru's Circle of English

  • 'Inner' and 'outer' suggest value judgements about 'better' usage. It also suggests a form of inner circle prestige
  • doesn't account for bilingual speakers
  • The model was created in the 1980s — before globalisation, the internet, and social media dramatically changed how English is used for eg; Expanding Circle countries are beginning to develop distinctive English varieties through pop culture, business, and digital communication.
  • Overgeneralisation - in India (Outer Circle), not everyone uses English — access to English often depends on social class, education, and region.
• What is McArthur's model?

  • Central Circle
  • At the core is “World Standard English” (an idealised notion of a universally understood, standardised English).
  • This was never a real language, but rather a hypothetical “common core” of English grammar and vocabulary.
  • Outer Circle (Regional Varieties)
  • Around the centre are regional standards, e.g.:
  • British English
  • American English
  • Canadian English
  • Australian/New Zealand English
  • Indian English
  • East Asian Englishes
  • These are considered standardised national/regional forms of English.
  • Outer Rim
  • Non-standardised varieties and emerging localised Englishes (e.g., Nigerian Pidgin English, Singlish, Jamaican Patois).
  • These are linked to the regional standards but are more diverse and less codified.
• Evaluation of McArthur’s Model

  • Strengths
  • Shows the plurality of English around the world and acknowledges both standard and non-standard varieties.
  • Highlights the idea of a “common core” making English mutually intelligible.
  • Limitations

  1. Over-simplified: The idea of a “World Standard English” is idealistic — in reality, no single global standard exists.
  2. Ignores hybridity: Local Englishes often mix multiple influences (e.g., Singlish isn’t neatly tied to just one regional standard).
  3. Static: Doesn’t show how Englishes change and evolve over time (e.g., new digital Englishes).
  4. Too neat: English varieties don’t fit cleanly into categories; there’s overlap and fluidity.
• (Schneider;s Dynamic Model) Phase 1 - Foundation

  English first appears in a non English speaking territory

  
  

  
  

  
  
• (Schneider;s Dynamic Model) Phase 2 - Exonormative Stabilisation

  English begins to be used. Norms are taken from ‘outside’ i.e native English speakers
• (Schneider;s Dynamic Model) Phase 3 - nativisation

  English becomes more normalised with some influences from within. Local language mixes with English
• (Schneider;s Dynamic Model) Phase 4 - Endonormative Stabilisation

  The country gains independence and the English being spoken there developed its own kind of standards and norms. This new variety of english becomes normalised.
• (Schneider;s Dynamic Model) Phase 5 - differentiation

  The new variety develops its own regional and social variations. It breaks down into its own accents and dialects
• Explain Schneider’s Dynamic Model:

  - outlines the typical stages through which English develops in postcolonial contexts, moving from initial foundation during colonisation, through a phase of exonormative stabilisation where colonisers’ norms dominate, into nativisation, where English blends with local languages and identities. Over time, this shifts towards endonormative stabilisation, as a locally accepted standard emerges, and finally to differentiation, where regional and social varieties develop internally. The model is significant because it links the spread of English not just to language contact, but also to issues of identity, power, and cultural ownership.
• strengths of Schneider’s Dynamic Model

  - Historical grounding: links language development to colonisation and political change, showing how English spreads in real-world contexts.

  • Identity focus: emphasises how local identity and culture influence language, not just external prestige norms.

  • Dynamic process: shows that English varieties evolve over time in stages, rather than being static snapshots.

  • Universal application: can be applied to many postcolonial contexts (e.g., India, Singapore, South Africa), making it widely relevant.

  • Explains ownership shift: highlights how English moves from being “owned” by colonisers (exonormative) to “owned” by local speakers (endonormative).

  • Accounts for variation: final stage of differentiation explains why multiple regional and social varieties emerge within the same country.
• weaknesses of Schneider’s Dynamic Model

  - Overly linear: assumes all countries pass through the stages in the same order, which doesn’t reflect messy, overlapping realities.

  • Postcolonial bias: mainly fits former colonies (e.g., India, Singapore) but is less useful for countries where English spread differently (e.g., globalisation, migration).

  • Ignores globalisation: doesn’t account for modern factors like the internet, social media, or English as a Lingua Franca, which shape language outside colonial history.

  • Too generalised: risks oversimplifying diverse linguistic and cultural contexts into one fixed model.

  • Weak predictive power: describes past developments well but doesn’t always explain or predict future change.

  • Focus on English only: overlooks the impact of multilingualism, code-switching, and hybrid varieties (e.g., Hinglish, Singlish) that don’t neatly fit the stages.
• What is Singlish?

  Definition: Singlish is a colloquial, hybrid variety of English spoken in Singapore, combining English with Malay, Chinese dialects (Hokkien, Cantonese, Teochew), Tamil, and local expressions.Example: “Don’t play play, okay?” – using “play play” as a reduplication for emphasis.English link: Demonstrates creolization, code-mixing, and the development of a local English variety in a multilingual society. Can be used in essays when discussing non-standard English and World Englishes.
• How is English seen by the Singapore government?

  government view: English is promoted as the neutral, official language for administration, education, business, and international communication, unifying a multilingual population.English link: Illustrates language planning and policy, showing how governments attempt to use English as a tool for social cohesion, economic development, and global competitiveness. Essays can link this to status planning in sociolinguistic
• Why did Singapore need “good English”?

  singapore’s population speaks multiple mother tongues (Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, other Chinese dialects). English avoids favouring one ethnic group.

  • Economic necessity: English proficiency was essential for international trade and attracting foreign investment.
  • Education: Standard English seen as necessary for global academic and professional success.English link: Highlights English as a lingua franca, showing how government intervention shapes language for economic and social capital. Can be tied to essays on prestige and standardisation.
• Linguistic features of Singlish

  omission of articles, subject, or auxiliary verbs (“I go school”, “He like that”).

  • Particles: “lah”, “lor”, “meh” – pragmatic markers adding tone, mood, or emphasis.
  • Vocabulary: Borrowed from Malay, Hokkien, Tamil (“kiasu” – fear of missing out, “shiok” – pleasure).
  • Pronunciation: Influenced by local languages; vowels and consonants may differ from Standard English.English link: Illustrates phonological, lexical, and syntactic variation. Useful for essays on language variation, identity, and World Englishes.
• Why is Singlish used / why people enjoy it?

  marks Singaporean identity; distinguishes locals from foreigners.

  • Informal communication: Creates humour, warmth, and relational closeness.
  • Cultural creativity: Flexible and expressive, incorporating puns, reduplication, and slang.English link: Shows language and social identity, pragmatics, and sociolinguistic choice. Essays can use this to discuss how non-standard varieties serve functional, cultural, and expressive roles.
• Why some people dislike Singlish

  perceived as “incorrect” English: Seen as a barrier to international intelligibility.

  • Professional stigma: Foreigners may struggle to understand Singlish, affecting perceptions of competence.
  • Educational concerns: May hinder learning Standard English if overused in schools.English link: Links to debates on standard vs non-standard English, language attitudes, and linguistic prejudice. Good for essays on prestige, power, and education.
• Government response – Speak Good English Movement

  launched in 2000 to encourage use of Standard English in public, media, and schools.

  • Included campaigns, competitions, media adverts, and educational programs.
  • Aimed to reduce Singlish use in formal contexts while maintaining cultural identity.English link: Example of language standardization, status planning, and language policy intervention. Can be linked in essays to efforts to control linguistic variation.
• Why the Speak Good English Movement largely failed

  • cultural resistance: Singlish is tied to national identity and informal social bonding.
  • Practicality: Campaigns were top-down and prescriptive; people naturally code-switch instead.
  • Diglossia: Singaporeans use Singlish informally and Standard English formally, maintaining functional variety.English link: Demonstrates diglossia, resistance to prescriptive language policy, and sociolinguistic norms. Can be used in essays on why standardization efforts are often unsuccessful.
• Singlish and global English

  world Englishes: Singapore English is a post-colonial variety that shows creolization, hybridisation, and localisation.

  • Global relevance: Highlights how English adapts to local needs, culture, and identity while remaining intelligible internationally.English link: Demonstrates English as a global language with local innovations. Essays can link to language evolution, hybridity, and global vs local identity.
• How English was viewed in the past in China

  English was largely seen as a foreign, elite language associated with colonial influence, business, and diplomacy. Access to English was limited, and proficiency often indicated social status.

  • English link: Reflects English as a marker of prestige and linguistic capital, linking to Bourdieu’s concept of language and power. Essays can discuss historical attitudes influencing language spread.
• What changed about the view of english in China?

  from the 1980s, English became a key tool for economic development, higher education, and international trade.

  • Education policies: English became mandatory in schools, with a focus on Standard English for exams and official use.
  • Cultural shift: English increasingly seen as practical rather than elitist, but still influenced by local culture.
  • English link: Shows language planning, spread of English as a global lingua franca, and instrumental motivation for learning. Essays can link this to policy-driven language adoption.
• What is the current view of english in China?

  English is widespread among younger generations, particularly in business, academia, and online communication.

  • Varieties: Many use American English conventions due to media, tech, and global culture rather than British English taught historically.
  • English link: Demonstrates World Englishes in practice, language change over time, and influence of global media on language norms. Essays can use this to discuss dynamic, evolving English varieties.
• Why are Chinese people using American English, not British English?

  movies, TV shows, social media, and the internet predominantly use American English.

  • Business and technology: American English dominates in global business, software, and STEM fields.
  • Perceived modernity: American English is often associated with innovation and youth culture.
  • English link: Shows language adoption influenced by globalisation, prestige of certain varieties, and sociolinguistic choice. Useful for essays on why certain English varieties spread internationally.
• What are the Concerns about so many people learning English in China

  worry that overemphasis on English could undermine Mandarin or local dialects.

  • Cultural erosion: Fear that Western influence might dilute traditional Chinese values.
  • Educational pressure: Intense focus on English can cause stress and reinforce educational inequality.
  • English link: Links to language ideology, linguistic imperialism, and debates on language maintenance vs global English. Essays can connect this to cultural and linguistic consequences of global English.
• What did David Crystal say about World Englishes?

  • English became a global language not because it is linguistically “better,” but due to historical factors (e.g. colonialism, British Empire, international trade) and modern forces such as technology, globalisation, media, and the internet.
  • English is the world’s first global lingua franca, used across business, academia, etc as a common means of communication between speakers of different native tongues.
  • He predicts English will stay dominant for the foreseeable future. However, he warns it may fragment into multiple distinct Englishes (similar to how Latin split into Romance languages).
  • He warns that a single global language could create linguistic inequality, privileging fluent speakers while disadvantaging non-speakers. This relates to concerns about linguistic imperialism.
• What did Saraceni say about world englishes?

  • He challenges the idea that English “belongs” to Britain or America. Once a language spreads, it becomes de-territorialised — no single nation can claim ownership.
  • English is relocated into new contexts. Local communities reshape it with their own linguistic, cultural, and identity features, leading to new local Englishes.
  • He critiques the expectation that international learners must conform to British or American standards. Instead, local norms are equally valid and should be recognised in education.
  • He advocates for plurality — multiple Englishes exist, and privileging one (e.g., RP or “Standard” British English) is unrealistic, outdated, and unfair in a globalised world.
  • Using English in a localised way allows speakers to assert cultural and national identity.
  • Critics Kachru's circle -Argues that placing “native speakers” at the centre of models reinforces linguistic hierarchies
• What is a pidgin?

  a pidgin is a simplified form of language that develops as a means of communication between speakers of different native languages who need to communicate, often for trade or work. It has no native speakers and arises out of necessity.
• What are the characteristics of a pidgin?

  • Simplified grammar and vocabulary
  • Limited vocabulary (lexicon)
  • No native speakers
  • Mix of elements from two or more languages (often the lexifier and local languages)
  • Used in specific contexts (e.g. trade, labour)
  • Variable and unstable in early stages
• Why did pidgin and creole languages arise?

  • colonialism and trade: contact between colonisers and local populations.
  • Slave trade: people from different linguistic backgrounds needed a common means of communication.
  • Economic and social interaction: communication between groups without a shared language.