Psych learning

• Classical Conditioning


  A form of learning where two normally unrelated stimuli are repeatedly linked so that existing reflex responses are elicited by new stimuli
• Reinforcement


  Any event that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again
• Response


  Any identifiable behavior that is elicited by (produced as a result of) a stimulus
• Responses


  • Observable actions, such as blinking or turning a doorknob
  • Internal behaviors, such as having a fast heartbeat
• Reinforcement used by teachers

  • Verbal praise used to increase the likelihood of a child putting their hand up
• Stimulus


  Any object or event that elicits a response
• Reinforcement can assist the learning process

  • By offering a food reward each time the dog performs a trick
  • By praising a child for picking up their toys
• A girl gets stung by a bee

  She may learn to fear bees
• Learning


  A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
• Neutral stimulus (NS)


  A stimulus that does not naturally elicit any specific response
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)


  A specific stimulus that is innately capable of eliciting a reflex response
• Unconditioned response (UCR)


  The natural, reflex response to a specific unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)


  A stimulus that evokes a specific response due to learning
• Conditioned response (CR)


  A reflex response to a previously neutral stimulus that occurs after learning has taken place
• Classical conditioning depends on reflex responses
• Classical conditioning


  1. Neutral stimulus (NS)

  2. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

  3. Unconditioned response (UCR)

  4. Conditioned stimulus (CS)

  5. Conditioned response (CR)
• Acquisition


  The learning itself; the gaining (acquiring) of knowledge or a skill
• If the UCS no longer follows the CS

  The CR will eventually extinguish
• Extinction


  The gradual decrease in strength or frequency of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer available
• Watson and Rayner (1920) set out to condition 11-month-old Little Albert to have an emotional response of fear to laboratory rats and other white objects
• Little Albert showed stimulus generalisation of his conditioning, as he reacted with fear when presented with a white rabbit, a fluffy dog and a sealskin coat
• Watson and Rayner's experiment is now considered unethical due to lack of informed consent, failure to debrief, and breach of confidentiality
• Stimulus discrimination


  The ability of a subject or learner to behave differently in response to a specific stimulus based on distinguishing the stimulus from other stimuli
• Target behavior


  The behavior that occurs immediately following the presentation of the discriminated stimulus
• Spontaneous recovery


  When a behavior that is believed to be extinct unexpectedly and quickly returns after a period of rest or lessened response
• Operant conditioning


  A learning process in which the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of that behaviour
• Operant conditioning example


  • You deposit your last two dollars to buy a chocolate bar. You press the button, but nothing happens. Impulsively, you kick the machine. Then, as you turn away, out pops a chocolate bar plus 50 cents in change. Once this happens, chances are you will repeat the 'kicking response' in the future. If it pays off several times more, kicking vending machines may become a regular behaviour because you have learnt to associate a desired response with your action.
• Operant conditioning


  The learning process in which the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of that behaviour. A response may be followed by the consequences of reinforcement (such as food) or punishment (such as being reprimanded), or nothing (where there is no consequence at all).
• Three phase model of operant conditioning

  1. Antecedents (what has already happened)

  2. Behaviour

  3. Consequences
• Reinforcement


  Any event that increases the likelihood that a response or behaviour will occur again
• Punishment


  Any unpleasant stimulus that reduces the likelihood of an unwanted behaviour occurring again
• Positive reinforcement


  A pleasant or desirable event follows a response and generally increases or strengthens the likelihood of that response occurring again
• Positive reinforcement example


  • You may have received positive reinforcement at some time during your school life; for example, when you received praise for completing a maths question or painting a beautiful portrait. Of course you are going to be pleased with this praise and will want to receive it again, so in future you will be more likely to repeat the behaviour to again receive this positive reinforcement.
• Negative reinforcement


  An unpleasant stimulus is removed, reduced or prevented creating a positive consequence, thus strengthening or increasing the frequency or likelihood of a desired response
• Negative reinforcement example


  • Imagine that you have a headache and in response to that headache you take an aspirin. Your aspirin-taking behaviour will be negatively reinforced if the headache stops; the likelihood of you taking an aspirin next time you have a headache is increased because you have received a positive consequence from an action that caused an unpleasant situation to end.
• Positive and negative reinforcement can both be used to obtain a desired response
• Positive punishment


  The addition of an aversive consequence (such as a loud noise)
• Negative punishment


  The removal of a pleasant stimulus (like taking away a child's favourite toy)
• Thorndike's Law of Effect


  Animals learn responses when they find the consequences rewarding and stop other behaviours for which they are punished in some way
• Skinner box


  An apparatus used by B.F. Skinner to study operant conditioning, where a peigon is placed inside and learns to create a random behaviour to receive food as a reward