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• Biology

  The scientific study of life
• Correlation of structure and function


  At each level of biological hierarchy, we find a correlation between structure and function. Analyzing a biological structure gives us clues about what something does and how it works.
• Cell


  The basic unit of structure and function. The smallest unit of organization that can perform all activities required for life. Every cell is enclosed by a membrane that regulates passage of materials between the cell and its environment.
• Cell types


  • Eukaryotic (membrane-closed organelles, largest is usually the nucleus. Ex: plant cell, animal cell, fungi, protists)
  • Prokaryotic (simpler, smaller, no nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles. Ex: archaea and bacteria)
• Feedback regulation


  The output or product of a process that regulates that very process. In other words, the ongoing activity to maintain balance or achieve a certain state.
• Types of feedback regulation

  • Positive regulation (speeds up its own production. Ex: woman giving birth, apple ripening)
  • Negative feedback (the response reduces the initial stimulus. Ex: shivering when cold)
• Scientific method


  Inquiry, hypothesis/testing a hypothesis, observation, quantitative vs qualitative data, experiment
• Quantitative data


  Can be measured and expressed numerically. This data can be measured using mathematical and statistical methods. Ex: measuring length, weight, temperature.
• Qualitative data


  Information that cannot be easily quantified and often descriptive in nature. Ex: describing an apple as sweet or sour.
• Reasoning types


  • Inductive (specific observations or patterns)
  • Deductive (general statement or hypothesis applied to a specific case)
• Matter


  Anything that takes up space and has mass
• Element


  A substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions
• Compound


  A substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio. A compound has different characteristics from elements.
• Types of elements


  • Essential elements (required for life)
  • Trace elements (required in minute quantities)
• Atom


  The smallest unit of matter
• Subatomic particles


  • Neutron (neutral charge)
  • Proton (positive charge)
  • Electron (negative charge)
• Atomic number


  The number of protons in the nucleus
• Atomic mass


  The sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
• Isotopes


  Two atoms of an element that differ in number of neutrons
• Energy


  The capacity to cause a change
• Potential energy


  The energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure
• Electron shell


  Characteristic average distance and energy level. The first shell is the lowest energy, the third shell is the highest energy.
• Valence electrons


  Those in the outermost shell. Elements with a full valence shell are chemically inert.
• Covalent bond


  The sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms
• Types of covalent bonds

  • Non-polar (atoms share electrons equally)
  • Polar (one atom is more electronegative, atoms do not share electrons equally)
• Covalent bond types


  • Single (sharing one pair of valence electrons)
  • Double (sharing two pairs of valence electrons)
  • Triple (sharing three pairs of valence electrons)
• Electronegativity


  An atom's attraction for the electrons in a covalent bond
• Across a period, electronegativity increases because atoms have a greater nucleus charge leading to a stronger attraction for electrons
• Down a group, electronegativity decreases because atoms have a larger atomic radius, and electrons are further from the nucleus
• Ion


  Two oppositely charged atoms or molecules
• Types of ions


  • Cation (positively charged when an atom loses one or more electrons)
  • Anion (negatively charged when an atom gains one or more electrons)
• Salt


  Ionic compounds of positive and negative charged ions. Ex: sodium chloride.
• Hydrogen bond


  A weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule
• Van der Waals interactions

  Attractions between molecules that are close together as a result of these charges. Every molecule has a little bit of positive charge on one side and a little bit of negative charge on the other, because of how the electrons move around.
• Molecular shape determines how biological molecules recognize and respond to one another
• Chemical reaction


  The making and breaking of chemical bonds
• Components of a chemical reaction

  • Reactants (starting molecules)
  • Products (resulting molecules)
• Chemical equilibrium


  Reached when the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate
• Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together (cohesion)
• Adhesion


  Attraction between different substances. Ex: water and plant cell walls.