gender and attainment

• early sociological studies focused on why boys are more successful than girls in education with sexism being the biggest factor

  however today studies are more concerned with boys under attainment with 'masculinity' being seen as barriers to success

  concerns are also raised regarding subject choices being gendered
• Paul willis- learning to labour

  ethnographic study on 12 working class white boys in an all boys secondary schools

  used participant observation and group interviews to gain the results

  overall it helped understand and describe counter school subcultures
• Paul willis- learning to labour process

  began research in 1972 for 6 months in the boys second to last year in secondary school

  interviewed periodically until 76 when they had transitioned into work where most ended up in manual factory work

  used marxist framework to give an explanation as to why working class lads went into manual jobs
• Paul willis- learning to labour findings

  recognised the boys felt no need for the qualifications as their ambitions for manual jobs didn't require them. superior to academic work

  counter school culture lead to self damnation, spending their time having a laugh and confronting school authority

  gives the view they had no choice to enter manual jobs
• Carolyn Jackson

  'lads and ladettes in school'

  interviewed over 200 13-14 year old students

  found girls were imitating typically male behaviour of misbehaving as they did not want to be deemed uncool

  girls were picked on for working hard

  girls had become increasingly aggressive and rude

  even MC girls were joining in so to fit in
• Angela mcrobbie


  • Publications: The uses of cultural studies
  • Studies: THE BEDROOM CULTURE: A FEMINISM PERSPECTIVE -FEB 13, 2015
  • Findings: claims that females are socialized into being content with being "trapped" within their rooms, as a result are more comfortable being indoors, hence becoming practically domesticated
• carol fuller- girls and their ambitions


  researched an all girls secondary school that was graded ‘unsatisfactory’ in an ‘area of high social deprivation’ and made up of a majority of pupils from minority ethnicities

  found that students could be separated into 3 groups:

  • low aspiring students wanted to leave school at 16, low self esteem and lacked a direction for life after school.
  • middle aspiring students understood qualification are important and intended to do vocational training.
  • high aspirers intended to go to university, were confident in their ability and had a strong sense of self.
• fuller- girls and their ambitions- 2009


  • Conducted a longitudinal research at a single-sex girls’ state secondary school in England. The school was deemed ‘Unsatisfactory’ by Ofsted. 
  • Used methods of observation, focus groups, case studies and both structured and semi-structured interviews.
  • The girls were split into three groups: Low aspirers, middle aspirers, and high aspirers. 
  • The studies showed that the low aspirers would leave school at 16, not placing much value on the importance of education. They also tended to have less of an idea on their direction in life after school. 
• fuller- girls and their ambitions 2009

  • The middle aspiring students tended to continue with vocational training, but didn’t progress into higher education. They understand the importance of education in the sense of job security, but tended to follow what others were doing
  • high aspirers would participate in higher education and be in top sets. They had a strong sense of self and were able to create a pathway in order for them to obtain their financial goals.
  • concluded that the main factors segregating them was the amount of emotional support received from families and confidence in school. 
• educational attainment and gender

  • Early Sociological studies focused on why boys were more successful than girls in education with sexism being seen as the biggest factor.  
  • However, today studies are more concerned with boys’ under-attainment with ‘masculinity’ being seen as a barrier to success. 
  • Concerns are also raised regarding subject choice as being gendered and thus limiting future opportunities.  
  • There are internal and external factors that are used to explain these changes.
• girls improvement in education- internal

  Introduction of GCSES and Coursework

  The introduction of GCSEs and Coursework is said to have improved the

  performance of girls in education as girls are more thorough in their organisation and presentation and spend more time on coursework than boys who prefer high stakes tests.

  HOWEVER coursework often only accounts for a small percentage of the student's final grade.
• girls improvement in education- internal

  More Female Role Models

  This can be used as both an internal and external factor as the rise of feminism has meant there are more female role models in society. In schools, female teachers, heads of department and Head Teachers offer girls the incentive to work harder and stay motivated.

  HOWEVER, despite the progress of Feminism there is still the existence of the glass ceiling.
• girls improvement in education- internal

  Pupil Teacher Interactions

  Giris are more likely to be seen as the ideal student due to the way in which they are socialised (external factor). Girls are more likely to be passive and polite and this means they receive more positive attention than boys in the classroom and therefore get more feedback from teachers.

  HOWEVER it can be argued boys actually receive more attention than girls
• girls improvement in education- internal

  In-school Initiatives and Social Polices

  With girls underachieving in the past, policies were brought forward to improve girls achievement. The celebration of women in schools and initiatives such as GIST and WISE encourage girls to succeed in comparison to boys.

  HOWEVER there remains a gender imbalance in some subjects and wage inequality for women
• girls improvement in education- internal

  Feminisation of Education

  It has been suggested that the education system has become feminised for a variety of reasons.

  Collaborative teaching methods and coursework favour girls over boys, whilst the ratio of female to male teachers is increasing and schools are seen as part of the feminine domain.

  HOWEVER there are still more male Head Teachers and Assistant Heads
• girls overachievement in education- external


  The Rise of Feminism

  Second and third wave feminism have given girls higher aspirations in

  society as a whole.

  The expectation of girls marrying and staying home to raise children is a thing of the past.

  KEY STUDY: Sue Sharpe Just Like a Girl

  HOWEVER, the gender pay gap still exists
• girls overachievement in education- external

  Female Role Models

  With more women working than ever before, young girts are seeing their mothers as role models for their own careers. There is now an increasing expectation on girts to do well in school in order to compete in the job market.

  HOWEVER there are still further demands placed on women such as childcare and housework
• girls overachievement in education- external

  Gender Socialisation and Literacy

  Girls, through their socialisation, develop better literacy skills than boys and this puts them at an early advantage in education. It can also be seen to be why girls are pushed into subjects with higher levels of literacy than boys.

  HOWEVER, this assumes fixed gender socialisation
• girls overachievement in education- external

  Changes to Law

  Over the past 40 years there has been

  important legislation that has impacted on the position of women in society. From the Equal Pay and Sexual Discrimination Acts to the Equality and Diversity Act - each of these has encouraged women into employment and acted as motivation for girls to do well in school

  HOWEVER there is still not equality in jobs
• girls overachievement in education- external

  Changes to the Job Market

  Changes to employment patterns have meant that many of the

  traditionally male jobs such as manufacturing and manual labour have been replaced with service sector and customer facing jobs which favour women's employment opportunities and career progression

  HOWEVER, women are over-represented in lowest paid jobs
• boys underachievement- internal


  Lack of Male Role Models

  Particularly in primary education, a lack of male teachers leads boys to make assumptions that education is part of the feminine domain. Male teachers tend to be present in subjects that fall into the 'male domain' which impacts on the selection of different subjects at GCSE and A level.

  However, critics would suggest males are still dominant in higher positions
• boys underachievement- internal


  Teacher Interactions

  Whilst boys dominate teacher's time according to Francis, the attention they receive is generally negative. This reinforces attitudes and beliefs that education is part of the feminine domain and that the rejection of masculine traits as part of the feminisation of education links into this belief
• boys underachievement- internal


  Feminisation of Education

  The feminisation of education has lead characteristics

  associated with the feminine domain, such as collaboration and being conscientious, to have higher value in classwork and coursework. Boys lack of communication skills and male bravado also mean they are less likely to seek assistance
• boys underachievement- internal


  Laddish Subcultures Boys look to achieve status from their peers, particularly other males, as they are unable to achieve this from the education system. The frustration they display at being denied status plays out through the formation of anti-school and laddish subcultures - e.g. Ward, Willis
• boys underachievement- internal


  Lower expectations and false confidence

  Boys are more likely to display false confidence in their abilities and unlikely to ask for help. Teachers may also have lower expectations of boys work (presentation, length, ability level) due to negative stereotypes about boy's performance.

  This leads to teachers not pushing boys to achieve as highly.
• boys underachievement- external


  Crisis of Masculinity

  The changing nature of masculinity in the late 20th and early 21st

  century has led to a 'crisis of masculinity according to Mac an Ghail - who suggested that this has demotivated males who have seen the security of employment opportunities and their role in relationships change dramatically, without being given guidance on how to deal with the challenges presented
• boys underachievement- external


  Decline in traditional male jobs

  The globalisation of society has led to male dominated industries, such as manufacturing, being moved to lower wage economies in the developing world.

  This gives boys less security in their futures. However, critics would suggest that these jobs did not require academic qualifications.
• boys underachievement- external


  Literacy Skills

  Boys' literacy skills have been criticised as being less developed that girls' skills in reading, writing and communication. This is due to literacy being seen as part of the feminine domain, partly due to mothers reading to their children and the association being made between women and books
• boys underachievement- external


  Gender Socialisation

  Males tend to be socialised into more aggressive and active pursuits than females.

  Concepts such as hegemonic masculinity are still prevalent in society, despite changes in recent years to female socialisation As a result, boys spend more of their free time outdoors and involved in physical rather than intellectual activities
• boys underachievement- external


  Lack of male role models in wider society

  Changes in the way in which educated males are portrayed in the media and the focus on role models for boys conforming to hegemonic ideas of masculinity have left many young boys without positive role models on who to shape their identity.

  New Right critics would highlight the absence of father figures in society.
• evaluation


  whilst girls attainment has improved it can be argued gendered norms and values persist in education. whilst improvements have been achieved in terms of outcomes, experience does not necessarily mirror this

  • Important characters/figures in books tend to be men.
  • Teachers can speak to boys and girls differently.
  • Subjects such as textiles and childcare are still pushed towards girls.

  Boys tend to dominate classes and the playground
• gender values persist and can be used to control behaviour

  Boys may be encouraged to be sexually promiscuous and see it as gaining status in the male peer group whereas they will condemn girls.

  Sue Lees found that it's acceptable for boys to be sexually promiscuous, such boys were regarded as a 'bit of a lad'. A different standard was applied to girls, and girls who were sexually promiscuous were likely to be heavily disapproved of.

  Since 1990s, girls' grades have improved; however, so have boys. It can show that discussions around girls improving attainment are part of a 'moral panic'