Gender

• what is 'sex'?


  biological differences between males and females which is clearly identified through sex chromosomes (XX) (XY) and fixed at birth

  (sex and gender not the same thing)
• what is 'gender'?


  how a person psychologically identifies, which is largely socially constructed

  (sex and gender not the same thing)
• what is sex role stereotypes?

  shared set of assumptions within a society about how men and women typically behave

  (a persons gender identity will largely depend on how closely they identify w/ the sex-roles prescribed in a society)

  (eg. men = business/fitness/ etc)

  (eg. women = cook/clean/apperance/ etc)
• what is gender (identity) dysphoria?

  a significant mismatch between someones biological sex and psychological gender

  (eg. physically male but identifies more as female)
• what is androgyny?


  a combination or balance of both male and female characteristics, behaviours and traits

  (Sandra Bem - argued it's a desirable quality by having a range of characteristics + behaviours allows a person to be more adaptable + better psychologically equipped to cope w/ life)
• How do you measure androgyny?

  the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) (SANDRA BEM)

  - questionnaire - measures the balance of persons male-female characteristics (60 character trait qs/ 7-point rating scale)

  - classified as - MASCULINE/ FEMININE/ ANDROGYNOUS/ or UNDIFFERENTIATED

  
• how was the BSRI made?

  - asked 50 males + 50 females to RATE 200 TERMS on HOW DESIRABLE they were for men + women

  - highest 20 scores for each sex then used in questionnaire

  - questionnaire = 60 character traits (20 male/ 20 female/ 20 neutral) + respondents use 7-point rating scale

  (- eg. male = aggressive/ dominant/ competitive/ female = compassionate/ warm/ affectionate)

  
• what are the strengths of androgyny research + the BSRI? (evaluation)

  - RELIABLE + VALID = orig. scale piloted on 1000+ students, results compared w/orig. data (stereotypical gender traits agreed w/ self perception) when ps retested = similar results

  - IMPORTANCE FOR EQUALITY MOVEMENT = has raised profile + importance of FEM. characteristics (ie. male characteristics not seen as superior -eg. in workplace)/ + raised importance of individuals developing BOTH sets of characterises - beneficial for psych. well-being + allows less male/female divided world
• what are the weaknesses of androgyny research + the BSRI? (evaluation)

  - SELF-REPORT DEPENDANT = all research is questionnaires + self-report - questions validity (honesty/ social desirability)

  - LINK W/ ANDROGYNY + PSYCH WELL-BEING = bem strongly believed it has strong link - others question this - ADAMS + SHERER - argue it depends on society (eg. western culture - bias to masc. traits so ppl w/ these traits r happier)

  - OVERLY SIMPLE/ GENDER TOO COMPLICATED = hard to reduce gender to 20 characteristics (too REDUCTIONIST) - gender can't be quantified/ reduced to single number like BSRI tries to do

  - LACK CULTURAL + HISTORICAL VALIDITY = BSRI devised in 1970s - gender identity + sex-stereotypes changed - lacks temporal + population validity (less applicable to non-americans)

  - LACKS EXPLANATORY POWER = doesn't explain why someone has masc/fem/androgynous traits + whether u can change them (theory = descriptive + of limited use)
• what is temporal validity?

  the extent to which research findings remain true over time
• what are genes and chromosomes?

  genes = sections of DNA which encode the body build itself (+ arguably basis for human behaviour)

  chromosomes = composed of genes (46 - 23 from each parent)

  - sex chromosomes = 1 pair that determine biological sex (XY - male/ XX - female)
• what are androgens?


  male sex hormones (eg. testosterone)
• what is the important of the Y chromosome and androgens?

  Y chromosome causes activation of androgens (most importantly testosterone) - 1st crucial role in creating male-female differences

  - up until c.6-8 weeks, foetus is 'undifferentiated' (not female or male) - then Y chromosome causes surge of testosterone + development of testes begins/ male sexual development

  - a lack of androgens (+ Y chromosome) leads to female development
• when else do chromosomes play a role in sexual development?

  - during puberty, a second surge of oestrogen or testosterone occurs (depending on the persons sex chromosomes) + further sexual development happens

  - androgens (testosterone) = hair growth/ lowered voice

  - oestrogen = breasts/ hip-waist ratio/period
• what is the evidence that chromosomes + hormones cause gender difference (as well as sex differences)?

  - case studies (DAVID REIMER)

  - research on testosterone

  - transgender studies (Van Goozen)

  - other hormones (oxytocin)

  - brain-sex theory (Simon Baron-Cohen)
• how does the case study of David Reimer show chromosomes and hormones cause gender differences?

  - despite being RAISED AS FEMALE (due to failed circumcision, unknown by him) + receiving FEMALE HORMONE INJECTIONS - he NEVER IDENTIFIED w/ femininity

  - eventually (re-)transformed himself to MALE

  (highlights u CANNOT OVERRIDE ONES SEX GENES, THEY PLAY A CRUCIAL ROLE IN GENDER IDENTITY - nurture cannot override genetics)
• how does research on testosterone show chromosomes and hormones cause gender differences?

  - research found CORRELATION BETWEEN MASCULINE BEHAVIOURS (eg. dominance/ aggression) + TESTOSTERONE LEVELS

  - suggests that GENETICS + HORMONE LEVELS may also CREATE DIFF. TEMPERAMENTS (not just physically build female/male bodies)
• how do transgender studies show that chromosomes and hormones cause gender difference?

  VAN GOOZEN STUDY

  (transgender studies involving hormone injections support hormone explanation)

  - BEHAVIOURS of ppl undergoing transgender procedures were AFFECTED BY HORMONE INJECTIONS

  - females to males (given TESTOSTERONE) = better VISUO-SPATIAL SKILLS + more AGGRESSIVE

  - males to females (given OESTROGEN) = showed opposite
• how do other hormones show that chromosomes and hormones cause gender differences?

  - OXYTOCIN = more readily produced by females (linked to child rearing processes + attachment bonding)

  - suggested more FEMALE BEHAVIOURS (eg. compassion, empathy, etc) R LINKED TO OXYTOCIN + supports the idea that HORMONES PLAY A ROLE IN SHAPING GENDERED BEHAVIOUR
• how does the brain-sex theory show that chromosomes and hormones cause gender differences?

  SIMON BARON-COHEN (research of female/male brains)

  - ppl w/ HIGHER LEVELS of TESTOSTERONE in womb = more likely to have 'SYSTEMISING BRAIN'

  - ppl w/ LOWER LEVELS of TESTOSTERONE in womb = more likely to have 'EMPATHISING BRAIN
• characteristics/ strengths of a systemising brain


  (male)

  - numbers/ data analysis/ patterns/ computers/ engineering/ physics/ etc
• characteristics/ strengths of an empathising brain

  (women)

  - social relationships/ communication/ compassion/ understanding others/ etc
• what is KLINEFELTER'S SYNDROME? (atypical chromosome patterns)

  - people who appear biologically male but possess and extra 'X' chromosome (XXY)

  (1/500 - 1/1000 ppl effected - beloved 2/3 ppl unaware they have it)

  
• what are physical characteristics of klinefelters syndrome?

  - reduced body hair

  - some breast development

  - general softening/curviness of body contours (hips)

  - long limbs

  - underdeveloped genetalia

  - co-ordination problems + general clumsiness

  - more susceptible to female types of illnesses (eg. breast cancer)

  
• what are the psychological characteristics of klinefelters syndrome?

  - poorly developed language skills

  - poorly developed reading ability

  - executive thinking problems (problem solving + memory)

  - tend to be passive, shy + lack interest in sexual activity)

  (DIRECT LINK BETWEEN CHROMOSOMES + GENDER AS MANY SUFFERERS CLAIM TO HAVE GENDER IDENTITY ISSUES)
• why are klinefelters syndrome psych. characteristics important evidence for argument that genes + hormones play role in gender development?

  - the fact that atypical chromosomes don't just create atypical bodies, but also cause gender confusion suggests chromosomes don't just create sex but also determine gender to some extent
• what is TURNER'S SYNDROME? (atypical chromosome patterns)


  - affects females where one of the X chromosomes is missing (classified as XO) (45 instead of 46 chromosomes)

  (1/5000 females effected)

  
• what are the physical characteristics of Turner's syndrome?

  - low set ears

  - 'webbed' neck

  - broad chest

  - ovaries fail to develop so they don't menstruate + are sterile

  - don't sexually mature (so don't develop breasts or curvy hip-waist ratio)

  - retain appearance of pre-pubescent girl

  
• what are the psychological characteristics of Turner's syndrome?

  - linguistic skills (speaking + reading) appear to be higher than average

  - spatial, visual memory + mathematical processing is lower than average

  - appear to be socially immature (having trouble fitting in with their peers)
• what is the link of turners syndrome with gender identity?

  - no known link w/ gender identity

  - could be argued that although these chromosomes aren't affecting gender, they are creating psych. issues (chromosomes not just affecting body, but also psych. impacts)
• what are the strengths of genetic/hormonal explanations for gender (evaluation)?

  - CONCURRENT VALIDITY = evidence suggesting causal role in gender for genes + hormones is broad (case studies/ observational research/ correlational studies/ etc)

  - NOT JUST PHYSICAL = strong prob. not just physical diffs. genes + hormones cause - also psych. + behavioural diffs. (eg. David reimer - never identified as female - can't override genes - innate psych. diffs result from genetics)

  - USES + APPLICATIONS = if issues of gender identity r related to bio. factors = might help better understand + treat gender identity problems (eg. hormone replacement, etc)
• what are the weaknesses of genetic/hormonal explanations for gender (evaluation)?

  - CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE = TRICKER - 43 men injections of test. or placebo - no sig. diff in behaviours (suggests hormones not sig. factor in gender diffs)/ REINER + GEARHARAT found 6/14 males raised as females remained female happily (gender nurtured through socialisation - contradicts David reimer)

  - CORRELATION NOT CAUSATION - ROLE OF SOCIALISATION = can't be sure if genes + hormones cause gender or way ppl socialised - research shows parents treat kids diff. depending on sex at birth, unconscious behaviour shaping/ TURNERS SYNDROME = causes immature behaviour, or is it physical immaturity which affects how ppl treat them, causing immaturity due to socialisation

  - PROBLEMS W/ SAMPLES = David reimer, transgender studies, atypical development use v small sample sizes - untypical of most population - unrepresentative + ungeneralisable for typical gender development

  - REDUCTIONIST = gender more complicated than sex/ bio factors - other explanations too = cognitive (Kohlberg)/ schema theory/ development theories (freud)/ social + cultural explanations. interactionist approach most appropriate (interaction of genes, hormones, social development, life experience, media, culture)
• what are the cognitive explanations for gender development?

  - Kohlberg's theory

  - Schema theory

  (explore ppls thought processes behind gender)
• what is Kohlberg's theory?

  - understanding of gender/ gender identity (of yourself + others) occurs in EARLY CHILDHOOD

  - children pass through series of PRE-DETERMINED DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES, in particular order at particular ages

  - reach FULL DEVELOPMENT/ UNDERSTANDING OF GENDER AT 6YRS (when they can conserve - understand that although things may look diff. their basic underlying properties stay the same)

  - argued that its not until stage 3 that child pays attention to, learns about + engages fully in gender appropriate behaviour
• what are the stages of Kohlberg's theory?

  stage 1 = GENDER IDENTITY/ LABELLING = 2-3yrs old

  stage 2 = GENDER STABILITY = 4yrs old

  stage 3 = GENDER CONSTANCY = 5-6yrs old
• what are characteristics of stage 1 (gender identity)? (kohlbergs theory)


  - children able to label ppl (first others then towards end of this stage, themselves) as boy or girl

  - judgements entirely based on outward appearances (eg. clothes/ hair

  - not aware sex is permanent (gender is highly flexible + changeable)
• what are the characteristics of stage 2 (gender stability)? (kohlbergs theory)

  - understand gender is stable over time (ie. boys become men + girls become women)

  - can conserve to some extent - understand basic properties remain unchanged

  - still rely heavily on appearance + think gender is changeable

  (eg. think boys could become girls if they dress up in skirts + play with dolls - gender is not constant)
• what are the characteristics of stage 3 (gender constancy)? (kohlbergs theory)

  - understand gender is consistent across time and situations

  - outward appearances will not sway their understanding

  - able to conserve

  (eg. a man wearing a dress might disturb but won't confuse them)
• what is the evidence that supports Kohlbergs theory?

  SLABY + FREY:

  STAGE 1 = only by 3yrs that 90% children can correctly + consistently identify their own sex

  STAGE 2 = responses to qs 'will u be a mummy or daddy when older'/ 'were u a boy/girl as baby' - only answered reliably by 4yrs

  STAGE 3 = when give male doll male clothes - children identify it as boy/ when change clothing (ie. dresses on male doll) + ask if its boy/girl - children will only consistently + confidently say 'he's still a boy' by 6yrs (can clearly 'conserve' gender)
• what is the schema theory?

  MARTIN + HALVERSON

  - as soon as gender is established (equivalent to Kohlbergs stage 1) an infant will start to construct their sex appropriate schemas + behave according to them

  (suggests girls/boys gravitate towards same-sex stereotype roles earlier than Kohlberg)

  (explains how ppl become gender in society + how sex-linked characteristics r maintained + transmitted to other members of a culture)