psychopathology

• Cultural relativism


  The view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates.
• Deviation from social norms

  Abnormal behaviour is seen as a deviation from unstated rules about how one 'ought' to behave. Anything that violates these rules is considered abnormal.
• Statistical infrequency


  Abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare.

  
• Evaluation of deviation from social norms


  Varies as time changes, Susceptible to abuse

  Related to context and degree

  Strengths - distinguishes between desirable and undesirable, takes account the affect it has on others.
• Evaluation of statistical infrequency

  Some abnormal behaviour is desirable (eg IQ)

  Cut off point is subjectively determined

  Statistical infrequency is sometimes appropriate
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  Abnormality is defined in terms of mental health, behaviours that are associated with competence and happiness. Ideal mental health would include a positive attitude towards the self, resistance to stress and an accurate perception of reality.
• Example of statistical infrequency


  Lower than average IQ, <70

  May be diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder
• Example of deviation from social norms

  Antisocial personality disorder

  Failure to conform to lawful or culturally normative ethical behaviour

  Person is abnormal bc they do not conform
• Failure to function adequately


  People are judged on their ability to go about daily life. If they can't do this and are also experiencing distress (or others are distressed by their behaviour) then it is considered a sign of abnormality.
• Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health


  deviance is related to context and degree

  susceptible to abuse

  there are some strengths
• Evaluation of failure to function adequately

  Defining abnormality is dependent on who is making the judgement.

  The behaviour may be functional rather than dysfunctional.

  Relatively easy to judge (using WHODAS)
• Phobias


  A group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or group of stimuli. The anxiety interferes with normal life.
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  Marked and persistent fear, which is excessive and unreasonable. Feelings of panic and anxiety are also present. Cued by the presence of a stimulus/ multiple stimuli. Feelings are out of proportion to the actual danger posed.
• Behavioural characteristics of phobias

  Avoidance. Freeze or faint response. Interference with normal day to day living.
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  Irrational nature of person's thinking and resistance to rational arguments. Recognition that fear is excessive or unreasonable (not present in children).
• Biological approach to explaining phobias

  Two-process model - classical conditioning, operant conditioning. Social learning theory.
• Watson and Rayner


  1920. Conditioned a fear response in Little Albert

  NS (white rat) > No response

  UCS (loud noise) > UCR (fear response)

  UCS (loud noise) + NS (white rat) > UCR (fear response)

  CR (white rat) > CR (fear response)
• Classical conditioning


  The initiation of a phobia through association (eg Little Albert or a fear of dogs due to being bitten)
• Operant conditioning


  Maintenance of a phobia. (eg reduced feeling of fear when avoiding stimulus results in increased likelihood of being repeated again)
• Two-process model


  A theory that explains the two processes that lead to the development of phobias - they begin through classical conditioning and are maintained through operant conditioning.
• Social learning


  Phobias may be acquired through modelling of the behaviour of others (because the behaviour appears rewarding)
• Evaluation of biological approach to explaining phobias

  Sue et al - different phobias may be the result of different processes.

  Diathesis-stress model - Di Nardo et al (1988)

  Support for social learning - Bandura and Rosenthal (1966)

  Two-process model ignored cognitive factors
• Flooding


  A form of behaviour therapy used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. A client is exposed to (or imagines) an extreme form of the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished.
• Process of flooding


  1) Patient is taught how to relax their muscles completely.

  2) Patient masters the feared situation that caused them to seek help in the first place. This is accomplished in one long session.
• Evaluation of flooding


  Individual differences - can be highly traumatic, people may quit during treatment.

  Effectiveness - more effective of the two (Choy et al 2007), equally effective (Craske et al 2008). Relatively quick.
• Systematic desensitisation


  A form of behaviour therapy used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. A client isgraduallyexposed to (or imagines) an extreme form of the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished.
• Process of systematic desensitisation

  1) Patient is taught how to relax their muscles completely. (a relaxed state is incompatible with anxiety).

  2) Therapist and patient together construct a desentitisation hierarchy.

  3) Patient gradually works their way through desensitisation hierarchy, visualising each anxiety-evoking event while engaging in the competing relaxation response.

  4) Once the patient has mastered one step in the hierarchy (i.e. they can remain relaxed while imagining it) they are ready to move onto the next step.

  5) Patient eventually masters the feared situation that caused them to seek help in the first place.
• Desensitisation hierarchy


  A series of imagined scenes, each one causing a little more anxiety than the previous one.
• Evaluation of systematic desensitisation

  Effectiveness - high percentage respond, Choy et al (2007).

  Not appropriate for all phobias - Öhman et al (1975)
• Depression


  A mood disorder where an individual feels sad and/or lacks interest in their usual activities. Further characteristics include irrational negative thoughts, raised or lowered activity levels and difficulties with concentration, sleep and eating.
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  For a formal diagnosis - at least five symptoms and must include sadness or loss of interest and pleasure in normal activities.

  Sadness - people may feel worthless, hopeless and/or experience low self esteem.

  Anger is also associated - towards others or towards the self.
• Behavioural characteristics of depression


  Shift in activity level, either reduced or increased. Sleep may be affected. Appetite may be affected.
• Cognitive characteristics of depression

  Negative self-concept, guilt, sense of worthlessness. Negative view of the world. Negative thought are irrational.
• Cognitive approach to explaining depression

  Ellis' ABC model, Beck's negative triad
• Ellis


  1962. The key to mental disorders such as depression lay in irrational beliefs. ABC model.
• Beck


  1967. Believed that depressed individuals feel as they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations of the world, and they lack a perceived sense of control. Negative triad.
• ABC model


  A cognitive approach to understanding mental disorder, focusing on the effect of irrational beliefs on emotion.
• Activating event


  The A in Ellis' ABC model
• Belief


  The B in Ellis' ABC model. May be rational or irrational.
• Emotion


  The C in Ellis' ABC model. The consequence which may be healthy or unhealthy based on the previous belief.