1st

• Topics


  • Human Organ Systems
  • Differentiating Organ Systems of Plants and Animals
  • Describing the Structures and Functions of Tissues and Organ systems in Plants
  • Describing How Organs Develop in Plants and Animals
  • Differentiating Organ Systems of Plants and Animals in Performing Biological Process
  • Explaining How Organisms Respond to Environmental Stimuli
• Organ systems


  Biological systems consisting of a group of organs that coordinate through a higher level of organization to perform specific functions
• Human Organ Systems


  • Digestive System
  • Circulatory System
  • Respiratory System
  • Excretory System
  • Integumentary System
  • Endocrine System
  • Nervous System
  • Muscular System
  • Skeletal System
  • Immune and Lymphatic System
  • Reproductive System
• Digestive System


  1. Ingestion - taking in food (mouth)

  2. Digestion - Chemical (involves enzymes and other chemical substances in the body)

  3. Digestion - Mechanical (involves the cutting, crushing or grinding the food using the teeth (mastication))

  4. Absorption and Elimination - complete absorption usually happens in the small intestine, elimination or defecation - the removal of indigestible wastes through the anus, in the form of feces
• Bolus


  Shredded food mixed with saliva
• Chyme


  Thick, liquid mixture of food and gastric juices
• Components of the human circulatory system

  • Heart - pumps blood
  • Arteries - carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to other parts of the body
  • Veins - carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (valves prevent blood from flowing backward)
  • Capillaries - exchange substances with nearby tissues, generally by diffusion, smallest blood vessels
  • Blood - contains RBCs, WBCs, platelets, and plasma
• Alveoli


  Functional units of circulatory system
• Respiratory System


  1. Lungs - Bronchi - Bronchioles - alveoli

  2. Delivers oxygen to and removes carbon dioxide
• Excretory System


  1. Maintains water, salt, and pH balance, and removes (urea in humans) from the body by nitrogenous waste filtering the circulating blood

  2. The kidneys serve as specialized organs for osmoregulation and excretion

  3. Each kidney contains millions of nephrons (functional units)

  4. Urine Formation - Initial filtration of the blood plasma occurs in the glomerulus, The glomerular filtrate is received and modified in the renal tubules, Peritubular capillaries then bring substances to and take substances away from the renal tubules, A collecting duct receive the processed filtrate from the renal tubule leading to the renal pelvis
• Urine Formation of Mammals

  Filtration starts where the blood pressure forces filtrate (water and small solutes) out of the glomerular capillaries, Blood cells, proteins, and other large solutes cannot pass the capillary wall and they remain in the blood, Filtrate is collected by the Bowman's capsule and funneled into the proximal tubule
• Endocrine System


  Uses molecules (hormones) for communication signals to different systems of the body to coordinate their activities and achieve a whole-body response to an event, A gland is any organ that secretes substances, Endocrine glands are ductless and release their secretions directly into your bloodstream, Exocrine glands have ducts and release their secretions onto your body's surfaces or into your body's cavities
• Components of the Endocrine System

  • Pineal gland - regulates biological rhythms
  • Hypothalamus - regulates the pituitary gland
  • Anterior pituitary gland - regulates growth and metabolism, activities of the gonads, thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, and mammary glands
  • Posterior pituitary gland - responsible for uterine contractions, lactation, and water movement of body parts and the reabsorption in the kidneys
  • Thyroid gland - regulates metabolism through several means and decreases calcium levels in the blood
  • Parathyroid gland - raises calcium levels in the blood
  • Adrenal medulla - initiates "fight or flight" response during times of acute stress
  • Adrenal cortex - raises glucose levels in the blood and regulates ion reabsorption excretion in kidneys
  • Pancreas - regulates blood glucose level
  • Thymus - responsible for T-cell development (used in the immune system)
  • Ovaries - in charge of the growth of the uterine lining and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics
  • Testes - responsible for sperm formation and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics
  • Lining of the small intestine/stomach - stimulates the small intestine/stomach to release enzymes
• Nervous System


  The functional units of the nervous system are nerve cells called neurons, The nervous system receives input from internal and external sensors and relays that information to the brain and it sends out nervous signals to different parts of the body that carry out actions in response
• Main Divisions of the Nervous System

  • Central nervous system (CNS) - composed of the brain and the spinal cord
  • Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - composed of nerves that branch out from the brain and the spinal cord to specific body parts
  • Sensory division - brings information from sense to organs to the central nervous system via afferent (incoming) neurons
  • Motor division - brings information from the brain to the body by efferent (outgoing) neurons
• Divisions of the Motor Division

  • Autonomic nervous system - responsible for involuntary (without conscious effort) actions
  • Somatic nervous system - responsible for voluntary (under conscious) actions
• Muscular System


  Muscle fibers are the main cell type, Functions are closely tied to those of the skeletal system, The sliding filament model revolves around the action of two proteins: actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments), The major building block of a muscle cell is myofibril also knows as a muscle fiber, Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the sole fuel for muscle contraction
• When a muscle is at rest


  The actin and myosin filaments are not connected to each other
• The action of a myosin head attaching itself to actin

  Causes the sarcomere to contract
• Types of Skeletons


  • Hydrostatic skeleton - possesses no such hardened structures (earthworms)
  • Exoskeleton - is found outside the body of an organism (clams and arthropods)
  • Endoskeleton - is the opposite of the exoskeleton, which is found mostly in vertebrates, like us humans
• Parts of the Skeletal System

  • Axial Skeleton - contains the skull, ribcage and spine, It is made up of the bones in your head, neck, back and chest, The axial skeleton protects and supports the internal organ
  • Appendicular Skeleton - contains all the other bones, Appendicular skeleton includes the bones in your shoulders, pelvis and limbs, including your arms, hands, legs and feet, All the bones of the appendicular skeleton are responsible for making movement of our bodies possible
• Integumentary System


  The integumentary system is mostly composed of the skin, which serves as the outermost protective layer, It prevents water loss and invasion of pathogens (disease causing organism) into the body, Skin is waterproof because of keratin, a protein
• Layers of the Skin

  • Epidermis - the outer, thinner layer
  • Dermis - a layer of fibrous connective tissue (structures located in the dermis: sweat glands, hair follicles, and oil glands)
  • Subcutaneous layer - composed of loose connective tissue, Adipose tissue is also present in this layer
• Types of Immunity


  • Innate or Nonspecific Immunity - The first line of defense against non-self pathogens, The innate immune response consists of defenses that attack all pathogens regardless of their type, The main purpose of the innate immune response is to immediately prevent the spread and movement of foreign pathogens throughout the body, Examples: skin, mucus, cilia, stomach acid
  • Adaptive or Specific Immunity - Only found in vertebrates, The adaptive immune system is the second in line and acts towards a specific response, Adaptive or specific immunity involves defenses that target specific pathogens by recognizing a specific foreign substance by its antigens and then marshaling the appropriate defenses
• Mechanisms of Immunity within the Adaptive Immune System

  • Humoral - attack pathogens with antibodies
  • Cellular - cell-mediated responses attack pathogens, cells infected with pathogens, and cancer cells by lysing them
• Antibodies


  Proteins produced by the immune system when it detects harmful substances
• Antigen


  Usually lipids; stimulating antibody; allergen, etc.
• Immunogens


  An antigen may be a substance from the environment, such as chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or pollen
• 3 Basic Types of Plant Tissues

  • Dermal tissue - covers and protects the plant
  • Vascular tissue - transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the plant
  • Ground tissue - serves as a site for photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix for the vascular tissue, and helps to store water and sugars
• 2 Distinct Organ Systems


  • Root system - the underground portion of the plant, Provides support (anchoring), never photosynthetic
  • Shoot system - portion of the plant above the ground where it grows while absorbing light (photosynthesis), Vegetative (non-reproductive) parts - such as the leaves and stems
• Humoral immunity


  Attack pathogens with antibodies
• Cellular immunity


  Cell-mediated responses attack pathogens, cells infected with pathogens, and cancer cells by lysing them
• An antigen may be a substance from the environment, such as chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or pollen
• Immunogens


  Substances that stimulate antibody production
• 3 Basic Types of Plant Tissues

  • Dermal tissue - covers and protects the plant
  • Vascular tissue - transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the plant
  • Ground tissue - serves as a site for photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix for the vascular tissue, and helps to store water and sugars
• 2 Distinct Organ Systems

  • Root system - the underground portion of the plant. Provides support (anchoring), never photosynthetic
  • Shoot system - portion of the plant above the ground where it grows while absorbing light (photosynthesis)
• Vegetative (non-reproductive) parts


  • Leaves and stems
• Reproductive parts


  • Flowers and fruits
• Single cell


  Before any animal or plant develops into an organized multicellular organism, they need to start first as a single cell
• Embryonic development (ANIMALS)


  1. Fertilization

  2. Cleavage

  3. Gastrulation

  4. Organogenesis