TAO

• The term revolution denotes a drastic change in what is established, believed, and embraced by society.
• Intellectual revolutions influenced politics, religion, and cultural institutions by impacting people's views of the world.
• people who shared revolutionary ideas were often branded as heretics or outcasts of society.
• Nicolaus Copernicus, an astronomer of the Renaissance period who challenged the previous notion about the cosmos, led the so-called Scientific Revolution
• The geocentric model, also known as geocentrism popularized by the thinker Ptolemy in 140 AD, was a description of the universe with the Earth as the center.
• In the 6th century BC, the Greek philosopher Anaximander (c. 610-546 BC) drew the first map of the world with the Earth taking the shape of a cylinder floating in the center of the universe, Sun and Moon were hollow rings of fire and that eclipses were the result of these rings closing.
• Pythagoras (c. 570-495 BC), a student of Anaximander, suggest that the Earth was a sphere.
• Plato (c. 428-348 BC), a student of Socrates believed that the cosmos is made up of matter in geometric shapes. He explained that the multiplicity of the orbits were simple circular paths that keep on repeating inside each other around the Earth.
• Aristotle (c. 384-322 BC), having studied under Plato, posited that the Earth was at the center of the universe with all other celestial bodies arranged in concentric crystalline spheres around it.
• The version of the geocentric model by Ptolemy (100-170 AD) was a refined explanation behind the movements of planets. The people at the time openly accepted the idea that the Earth was unmoving while the Sun, planets, and stars revolved around it.
• Copernicus (1473-1543), the "Father of Modern Astronomy," formulated the heliocentric model of the universe that: triggered a major shift in worldview.
• Copernicus attended the University of Krakow He became the apprentice of Domenico Maria de Novara.
• For Copernicus He proposed that the Earth is not the center of the known universe but the Sun.
• Copernicus finished his research in 1532 but was hesitant to publish his ideas because he knew it would be considered controversial by many. As a devout Catholic, he was afraid of judgment and religious objections because the ancient Greek and of 70, biblical teachings supported the geocentric model.
• When the heliocentric model was presented to the public, only a few astronomers took interest in it. Many rejected the model outright because it went against the popular belief at that time and contradicted Aristotelian physics.
• It took almost a hundred years before Copernicus's theory formally gained respect and recognition through further explorations by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642).
• Tycho Brahe the laws of physics that were taught and accepted.
• Johannes Kepler proposed his laws of planetary motions in 1609.
• In 1632, Galileo Galilei, an Italian thinker published a book that further reinforced the claim that the Earth orbited around the Sun. Was able to observe the movements of the Moon, Venus, and Jupiter and its satellites. He also became the first person to observe the craters of the moon using the telescope.
• Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1726). He was the first one to provide mathematical equation.
• Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), a martyred Italian monk
• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), the "Father of Microbiology" who discovered bacteria
• Robert Boyle (1627-1691), considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".
• Francis Bacon (1561-1626),  supporter of the empirical method and inductive reasoning.
• René Descartes, a French mathematician and philosopher who practiced deductive reasoning and the scientific method.
• Pre-Darwinian Belief

  the universe originated from "specific acts of divine creation."
• Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of the Charles Darwin.
• Charles Darwin, at the age of 16, entered Edinburgh University to study medicine.
• Robert Edmond Grant, who was a radical evolutionist. Grant was accompanied by Darwin in collecting sea slugs and sea pens on seashores. He became Darwin's mentor.
• Darwin was also influenced by prominent individuals, Adam Sedgwick and John Stevens Henslow.
• Darwin's account of the voyage published in 1839, commonly referred to as The Voyager of the Beagle, caught the attention of scholars and institutions.
• Darwin posited that species survived through "natural selection"-a process where species that adapt to the changing environment survive, whereas those that do not simply die out.

  "Father of Evolution."
• Pre-Freudian Psychology

  Early figures in the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (memory), William James (pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning).
• Descartes's paradigm, also known as the Cartesian paradigm, consists of two components: the mind-mind problem, and the mind-body problem.
• Sigismund "Sigmund" Freud (1856-1939) was the “Father of Psychoanalysis."
• Freud's psychoanalysis - human behavior is determined by unconscious motivations.
• There are two conflicting main instincts: Eros, survival instincts, and Thanatos, aggressive and self-destructive instincts.
• The personality is composed of three structures the id, ego, and superego.
• The id is the unconscious aspect of the personality that includes untamed instincts, impulses, and desires. It is said to be present since birth.
• The ego - responsible for dealing with reality. It functions as a "referee" that balances the needs of the id against the demands and expectations of society.