Class differences

• Cultural Deprivation


  The idea that many working-class families fail to socialise their children adequately, so they lack the cultural equipment needed to do well at school (such as language, parents' education and working-class sub-culture) and so they underachieve
• Hubbs-Tait et al (2002) found that where parents use language that challenges their children to evaluate their own understanding or abilities (e.g. 'what do you think?' 'are you ready for the next step?'), cognitive performance improves
• Restricted Code


  The type of language typically used by the working-class, consisting of limited vocabulary, and based on the use of short, often unfinished, grammatically simple sentences. Speech is predictable and usually consists of one word or gestures instead. The speaker assumes the listener shares the same set of experiences
• Elaborated Code


  The type of language typically used by the middle-class, which has a wider vocabulary and is based on longer, grammatically more complex sentences. Speech is more varied and communicates abstract ideas. The speaker does not assume that the listener shares the same experiences, and so they use the language to spell out their meanings explicitly for the listener
• Basil Bernstein (1975) identifies differences between working-class and middle-class language that influences achievement, and he distinguishes between the Restricted Code and the Elaborated Code
• Parents' Education


  The level of education of parents can influence their parenting style and the support they provide for their children's education
• Douglas (1964) found that working-class parents placed less value on education. They were therefore less ambitious for their children, gave them less encouragement and took less interest in their education. They visited schools less often and were less likely to discuss their child's progress. Their children therefore had lower levels of motivation and achievement
• Bernstein and Young (1967) found that middle-class mothers are more likely to buy educational toys, books and activities that stimulate intellectual development (because of their own education and better income than working-class families)
• Fatalism


  A belief in fate - 'whatever will be, will be' and there is nothing you can do to change your status. Unlike the middle-class, there is no belief that you can change your own status
• Collectivism


  Valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual. Unlike the middle-class who believe that an individual should not be held back by group loyalties
• Immediate gratification


  Seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future. Whereas the middle-class have the view that you make sacrifices now for greater rewards later, known as deferred gratification
• Barry Sugarman (1970) proposed 4 key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement in the working-class subculture: fatalism, collectivism, immediate gratification, and present-time orientation
• Overcrowding


  Common in working-class houses and has a direct effect by making it hard for the children to study at home e.g. no study space, disturbed sleep from sharing beds/rooms etc. Children in crowded houses also run a greater risk of suffering indirect effects such as increased likelihood of accidents due to overcrowding, cold or damp housing, or psychological distress from moving around temporary accommodation on a regular basis - all resulting in absence from school
• Nell Keddie (1973) describes cultural deprivation as a 'myth' and sees it as a victim-blaming explanation. She dismisses the idea that failure at school can be blamed on a culturally deprived home background. She points out that a child cannot be deprived of its own culture and argues that working-class children are simply culturally different, not culturally deprived
• Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams (1986) argue that the problem is not the child's language but the school's attitude towards it. Teachers have a 'speech hierarchy': they label middle-class speech highest, followed by working-class speech and finally black speech
• Tessa Blackstone and Jo Mortimore (1994) reject the view that working-class parents are not interested in their children's education. They say they attend fewer parents' evenings because they work longer hours or less regular hours, or even that they are put off by a school's middle-class atmosphere, and not because they aren't interested. They may actually want to help their child's progress but they lack the knowledge and education to do so
• Peter Mortimore and Geoff Whitty (1997) argue that material inequalities have the greatest effect on achievement. For this reason, Peter Robinson (1997) argues that tackling child poverty would be the most effective way to boost achievement
• Marilyn Howard (2001) says young people from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals. These low energy levels can mean weakened immune systems (and so time off school) and lack of concentration in class
• Costs of free schooling

  Children from poorer families having to do without equipment and miss out on experiences and trips that would enhance their educational achievement. Also as a result, poor children may have to do with hand-me-downs and cheaper but unfashionable equipment which may result in isolation or them being stigmatised and bullied by peers
• David bull (1980) describes 'the costs of free schooling' and refers to children from poorer families having to do without equipment and miss out on experiences and trips that would enhance their educational achievement
• Claire Callender and Jon Jackson (2005) found that working-class students are more debt averse and over five times less likely to apply to university than the most debt tolerant students (generally middle-class)
• Pierre Bourdieu (1984) argues that both cultural and material factors contribute to educational achievement and are not separate but interrelated. He uses the term 'capital' to explain why the middle-class are more successful, identifying three types: economic capital (money), educational capital (qualifications) and cultural capital
• Dennis Leech and Erick Compos (2003) conducted a study in Coventry, and found that middle-class parents are also more likely to be able to afford a house in the catchment area of a school that is highly placed in exam league tables. This is now known as 'selection by mortgage' because it drives up the costs of houses near to successful schools and excludes working-class families
• Becker (1971) found that teachers attach labels based on stereotyped assumptions about pupils' class background and not on their academic ability
• Self-fulfilling prophecy


  1. Teacher labels a pupil

  2. Teacher makes predictions about the pupil

  3. Teacher treats the pupil accordingly

  4. Pupil internalises the teacher's expectation

  5. Pupil becomes the kind of pupil the teacher believed them to be
• Labelling theory is deterministic, assuming labelled pupils have no choice but to fulfil the prophecy
• Marxists argue that labels are not merely the result of teachers' individual prejudices, but stem from the fact that teachers work in a system that reproduces class divisions
• Alternative responses to labelling and streaming

  • Ingratiation
  • Ritualism
  • Retreatism
  • Rebellion
• Streaming


  Separating children into different ability groups or classes called 'streams', each taught differently
• Working-class children tend to be streamed into lower ability classes, whereas middle-class children tend to be streamed into higher ability classes
• Pupil subcultures


  Emerge as a response to the way pupils have been labelled
• Differentiation

  Categorising pupils on ability and attitude/behaviour
• Polarisation


  Pupils respond to streaming by moving towards pro-school or anti-school subculture
• 'Nike' identity


  Working-class pupils seeking alternative ways of creating self-worth, status and value through styles and brand clothing
• Internal factors

  • Streaming- David gilborn intoduction of league tables
  • pupil subculture- Colin: polarization , anti and pro school subculture
  • pupil class identies and the school- archer found that WC students felt to change themselves for educational achievement
  • nike identity- WC pupils seeking alternative ways of creating self worth