classic research

• what is the classic research for the bio approach

  Raine et al 1997
• what was the bio approach classic research called

  brain abnormalities in murderers
• Raine's methodology

  Raine used PET scans to investigate brain differences in non-murderers and murderers who were pleading NGRI
• Experimental group/murderers

  • 39 males
  • 2 females
• Reasons for referral of murderers

  • 6 schizophrenics
  • 23 with a history of head injury or organic brain damage
  • 3 with a history of psychoactive substance abuse
  • 2 with affective disorder
  • 2 with epilepsy
  • 3 with a history of hyperactivity and learning disability
  • 2 with passive-aggressive or paranoid personality disorder
• Control group

  Matched each murderer with a normal subject of the same sex and age who had been tested using identical PET imaging procedures in the same laboratory
• Control group

  • 41 controls (39 men, 2 women)
  • Mean age 31.7 years
  • Screened for health by physical exam, medical history, and a psychiatric interview
  • No subject was taking any medication
• Raine's procedure

  1. Participants given practice trials on a continuous performance task (CPT) 10 minutes before FDG injection

  2. CPT started 30 seconds before injection so initial task novelty would not affect PET scan results

  3. FDG tracer injected into each participant

  4. FDG taken up by brain for 32-minute period during which participant completed CPT

  5. Participant transferred to PET scanner where brain was scanned in 10 mm horizontal slices
• The 41 murderers had significantly lower glucose metabolism relative to the control group
• Murderers were identical to controls on temporal lobe glucose metabolism
• The groups did not differ on any aspect of behavioural performance on the continuous performance task
• Raine stated that the findings of his research cannot be taken to demonstrate that violence is determined by biology
• Raine made it clear that social, psychological, cultural, and situational factors also play important roles in predisposing to violence
• The data do not demonstrate that murderers pleading NGRI are not responsible for their actions, nor do they demonstrate that PET scans can be used as a diagnostic technique
• The findings do not establish causal link between brain dysfunction and violence cannot be generalised at the present date from NGRI murder cases to other types of violent offenders
• Ethics of Raine's research (PEEL)


  • Lack of valid consent
  • Risk of psychological harm
• Social implications of Raine's research

  • Courts can solely use biological evidence against people convicted of murder or manslaughter
  • Successful psychological treatments may not be used to rehabilitate offenders
  • Effect on the judicial system
• Evaluation of Raine's methodology (PEEL)

  • PET scans were used as a research method
  • Not possible to fully state a cause and effect relationship
• Evaluation of Raine's procedures (PEEL)

  • Only murderers were studied
  • Raine had strict procedures in place for the research