cultural variations

• Takahashi found that in Japan there were a high level of insecure-resistant infants. It was suggested that this was due to the parenting styles of Japanese mothers
• Cultural variation questions how different child-rearing styles across cultures might impact the proportions of different attachment types in different countries
• Van Ijzendoorn conducted a meta-analysis of 32 studies which used the strange situation to investigate the proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant attachments across a range of countries. This yielded a sample size of 1990 children.
• Van Ijzendoorn found that secure attachment was the most common and may be considered the norm in most cultures, with Great Britain having the largest percentage (74%) of secure attachments. Israel had the largest proportion of insecure-resistant (28%) and Germany had the largest proportion of insecure-avoidant (35%)
• Van Ijzendoorn's meta-analysis has a large sample size and therefore good population validity
• Van Ijzendoorn's study may be criticised for publication bias, as Ijzendoorn may have chosen relevant studies in order to support the theory.
• Van IJzendoorn explored differences between countries, not cultures. Within any country there can be many different cultures. Comparisons between countries may have little meaning and the specific cultural characteristics of the sample need to be specified
• The strange situation used to measure attachment type was designed in America and therefore it assumes all parenting and attachment in other cultures will be like those displayed in America. This is an imposed etic
• The way the findings of the strange situation may be interpreted differently depending on the culture. For example, in Germany the high proportion of insecure-avoidant might actually be confused with independence
• Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg suggested small cross-cultural differences may reflect the effects of mass media. Western media may spread parenting notions to other cultures which may not truly reflect the parenting norms of that society
• Kagan et al (1986) suggested that attachment type is more related to temperament than the relationship with the primary attachment figure. This questions the validity of the strange situation.