intro to anatomy

• Six levels of structural organization


  • Chemical level
  • Cellular level
  • Tissue level
  • Organ level
  • System level
  • Organismal level

  
• Atoms


  • Smallest unit of matter
  • Consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons
  • Essential atoms for life include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and sulfur
• Molecules


  Two or more atoms joined together
• Macromolecules


  Larger molecules, examples include peptides, lipids, and polysaccharides
• Cells


  • Basic structural and functional units of an organism
  • Many kinds of cells in the body, examples include muscle, nerve, epithelial, and blood cells
• Tissues


  • Groups of cells and materials surrounding them
  • Four basic types: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous

  
• Organs


  • Structures composed of two or more different types of tissues
  • Have specific functions and recognizable shapes, examples include stomach, heart, lungs, kidneys

  
• Systems


  Related organs with a common function, examples include the digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, etc.
• Organism


  Any living individual, where all parts of the body function together
• Basic life processes


  • Metabolism
  • Responsiveness
  • Movement
  • Growth
  • Differentiation
  • Reproduction
• Metabolism

  • Sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body
  • Catabolism (breakdown of complex substances)
  • Anabolism (building up of complex substances)
• Responsiveness


  Body's ability to detect and respond to changes, examples include decrease in body temperature, responding to sound, nerve and muscle cell activity
• Movement


  Motion of the whole body, organs, cells, and subcellular structures
• Growth


  Increase in body size due to an increase in existing cells, number of cells, or both
• Differentiation


  • Development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state
  • Stem cells give rise to differentiated cells
• Reproduction


  • Formation of new cells (growth, repair, or replacement)
  • Production of a new individual
  • Maintain the continuity of the generation
• Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9th Ed. 2012. Frederic H. Martini. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings is the main text
• Other references include Seeley's principles of anatomy & physiology, Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 13th Ed., and Human anatomy & physiology, 8th Ed.
• Cells


  The basic unit of all living things
• Prokaryotic cells


  • Simple cells that have no nucleus
  • Most are unicellular bacteria
• Eukaryotic cells


  • Complex cells with a nucleus and subcellular structures (organelles)
  • All fungi, plants, and animals are eukaryotes
• Plasma membrane


  Serves as the interface between the machinery in the interior of the cell and the extracellular fluid (ECF) that bathes all cells
• Plasma membrane


  • Lipids are chiefly phospholipids
  • Hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic, polar head is hydrophilic
  • Forms a phospholipid bilayer with the hydrophobic tails facing each other
• Cytosol


  Intracellular fluid that surrounds the organelles, the site of many chemical reactions

  
• Organelles


  Membrane-enclosed structures within the cell that perform different functions
• Nuclear envelope


  • A double membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
  • Nuclear pores control movement of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm
• Nucleolus


  Spherical body that produces ribosomes
• Tissue


  A group of cells with common embryonic origin that function together to carry out specialized activities
• Four major tissue types

  • Epithelial
  • Connective
  • Muscle
  • Neural
• Epithelial tissue


  • Covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, ducts, and forms glands
  • Interacts with internal and external environment

  
• Connective tissue


  • Protects, supports, and binds organs
  • Stores energy as fat, provides immunity
• Muscular tissue


  • Generates the physical force needed to make body structures move and generate body heat
• Nervous tissue


  • Detects changes in body and responds by generating nerve impulses
• Types of covering and lining epithelium

  • Simple squamous
  • Simple cuboidal
  • Simple columnar (nonciliated and ciliated)
  • Pseudostratified columnar (nonciliated and ciliated)
  • Stratified squamous
  • Stratified cuboidal
  • Stratified columnar
  • Transitional

  
• Endothelium


  Lines the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
• Mesothelium


  Lines serous membranes such as the pericardium, pleura, or peritoneum

  
• Glandular epithelium


  Cells specialized to produce and secrete substances into ducts/body fluids
• Types of glandular epithelium

  • Endocrine glands (secrete into interstitial fluid and blood)
  • Exocrine glands (secrete into ducts that empty onto a surface)

  
• Epithelial membranes


  Flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body, consisting of an epithelial layer and an underlying connective tissue layer

  
• Synovial membrane


  Lines the cavities of freely movable joints, consists of a discontinuous layer of non-epithelial cells called synoviocytes