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• Play


  Pleasure gained in self-expression
• Animal play


  An activity/action voluntarily and repeatedly done by animals as a form of enjoyment and self-expression. Play may be adaptive, and it can help individuals practice skills required for adulthood
• Sex Differences and the Role of Nature

  • The sex of mammals is determined by sex chromosomes which affect their levels of sex hormones. This causes differences in the development of male and female brains, and consequently, their cognitive processes
• In a nursery, boys are more likely to be seen playing with cars, and girls with dolls. However, this doesn't mean that girls don't like playing with cars; in fact, research found that girls like playing with trucks more than boys like playing with dolls
• Nature vs Nurture Debate on Toy Preferences

  • Nurture debate: Children learn about gender and societal norms through socialisation, leading them to conform to stereotypical gender roles, and seek out sex-typed toys
  • Nature debate: Boys and girls play with toys which suit their cognitive abilities, and these depend on each child's sex hormone levels. Hence, toys are selected due to the play activities they promote, not due to societal norms on 'gender-appropriate' toys
• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

  An inherited condition where the foetus is exposed to high levels of prenatal androgens (male sex hormones)
• Research Method


  • Field experiment involving a controlled observation, and a correlational study using a behavioural checklist
• Research Design


  • Independent measures design
• Independent Variable


  • The sex of the monkey (male or female)
• Dependent Variable


  • Whether the monkeys interacted more with the plush toys or the wheeled toys
• Originally, 135 monkeys were from the Yerkes National Primate Research Center Field Station, but 53 were excluded, hence only 82 took part - 61 females and 21 males. There were infant and adult monkeys. 34 monkeys (23 females & 11 males) interacted with the toys on more than 5 occasions, therefore, their data was included in the analysis
• Reasons for excluding the 53 monkeys: 14 had previously participated in research on prenatal hormones so they weren't included in the current study (to reduce demand characteristics and order effects), 39 were excluded since they were too young, and it was hard to tell their sex
• Procedure


  Seven 25-minute trials were completed in the outdoor enclosure, each with a different pair of toys. Before each observation, observers placed a pair of toys (1 wheeled, 1 plush) outside while the monkeys waited inside. Toys were placed 10 metres apart and their positions were counterbalanced (to ensure the monkeys didn't prefer a certain area of the enclosure)
• The toys varied in shape, size, and colour, and were selected on what you could 'do' with them. There were 6 wheeled toys, including a wagon, truck, and car, and 7 Plush toys, including a Winnie-the-Pooh, Raggedy Ann, and Scooby Doo doll
• Data Collection


  A video camera was focused on each toy to record interactions. 2 observers watched the videos and used a behavioural checklist to categorise the behaviour of the monkeys. They recorded the data using the app Handobs on their palm pilots (a device similar to mobile phones)
• Data recorded by observers: The start and finish time of each interaction, and from this they calculated the duration. The monkey's age, sex, and rank
• Behavioural checklist included: extended touching, holding, sitting on, dragging, carrying, etc. Examples of operationalised behaviours: Extended touch – Placing a hand or foot on the toy, Sit on – Seated on the toy or a part of the toy