Paper One Revision.

• General description of the Holderness Coast

  It's made mainly of soft boulder clay. Cliffs are eroding quickly so leads to formation of depositional landforms like spits.
• Igneous rocks - formation, properties and examples

  Formed when molten rock (magma) cools down and hardens. They are resistant and form crystals. E.g) Granite and Basalt
• Sedimentary rocks - formation, properties and examples

  Formed when layers of sediment are compacted together until they become solid rock.

  They are quite easily eroded and are soft. They have layers and fossils. E.g) Sandstone and Chalk
• Metamorphic rocks - formation, properties and examples

  Formed when other rocks are changed by heat and pressure. They are hard and very compact. E.g) Slate and Schist
• How have humans changed the landscape through agriculture?

  Deforestation for more farmland and putting in hedgerows/walls to mark out fields
• How have humans changed the landscape through forestry?

  The UK used to be deciduous woodland, but now there's very little left.

  Coniferous (evergreen) trees have been planted for timber.
• How have humans changed the landscape through settlement?

  Settlements are typically in lowland areas, near rivers and coasts for water supply.

  Land is concreted over for roads, affecting drainage. Rivers are diverted, straightened or had embankments built to prevent flooding.
• Mechanical Weathering (3)

  1) Seawater gets into a crack in a rock

  2) When the water evaporates, salt crystals form and they expand which puts pressure on the rock

  3) Repeated evaporation of saltwater and salt forming causes the crack to widen and break the rock.
• Chemical Weathering (2)

  1) Rainwater has CO2 dissolved in it, making it a weak carbonic acid

  2) Carbonic acid reacts with rock that contains calcium carbonate so rocks are dissolved by rainwater.
• Biological Weathering (1)

  1) Plant roots break down rocks by growing into cracks and pushing them apart.
• What is mass movement and the 2 types?

  The shifting of rocks and loose material down a slope caused by the pull of gravity.

  Sliding - shifts in a straight line

  Slumping - material shifts with a rotation
• What are the 4 types of erosion?

  Hydraulic action - sheer power of the waves

  Abrasion - particles in water scrape against rock

  Attrition - eroded particles in water smash into each other

  Solution - dissolved CO2 in water reacts chemically with some rocks
• Destructive Waves (5)

  The waves that erode the beach

  - High frequency

  - High and steep

  - Weak swash

  - Strong backwash

  - Remove material
• Longshore Drift (3)

  1) Waves follow direction of the prevailing wind and hit the coast at an angle.

  2) Swash carries material up the beach

  3) Backwash carries material down the beach at right angles back towards sea.

  
• What are the 4 processes of transportation?

  Traction - large particles pushed along the sea bed by the water's force

  Suspension - small particles carried along in the water

  Saltation - pebble sized particles bounced along the sea bed by the water's force

  Solution - soluble materials dissolve in the water and are carried away

  
• Deposition

  When material being carried in the sea water is dropped on the coast with the heaviest material being dropped first
• Constructive Waves (4)

  Waves that deposit material

  - Low frequency

  - Low and long

  - Strong swash

  - Weak backwash
• Discordant Coastlines (explanation and 2 landform examples)


  Coastlines made up of alternating bands of soft rock perpendicular to the coastline.

  1) Bays

  2) Headlands

  
• Concordant Coastlines (explanation and reason for no landforms)

  Alternating bands of soft and hard rock parallel to the coastline.

  Eroded at the same rate along the coast so not many erosional landforms.

  
• How does a wave cut platform form? (6)

  1) Waves cause most erosion at the face of a cliff

  2) This forms a wave-cut notch which gets bigger as erosion continues

  3) The rock above the notch becomes unstable and eventually collapses

  4) The collapsed material is washed away and a new wave-cut notch begins forming

  5) Repeated collapsing results in the cliff retreating

  6) A wave-cut platform is the platform that's left behind as the cliff retreats

  
• How do headlands and bays form? (3)

  1) They from along discordant coastlines (alternating bands of less/more resistant rock)

  2) Less resistant rock is eroded quickly and forms a bay

  3) More resistant rock erodes slower so is left jutting out, forming a headland
• How are headlands eroded to form caves, arches, stacks and stumps? (5)

  1) Headlands are resistant rocks and have weaknesses like cracks

  2) Waves crash into headland and enlarge crack by hydraulic action and abrasion

  3) Repeated erosion and enlargement of the crack causes a cave to form

  4) Continued hydraulic action and abrasion deepens cave until it breaks through the other side of the headland forming an arch

  5) Erosion continues to wear away the rock that's supporting the arch until it collapses forming a stack separate from the headland
• What is a spit?

  Spits are just beaches that jut out into the sea

  
• How are spits formed? (7)

  1) Longshore drift carries sand in the same direction as the prevailing wind

  2) The coastline changes direction so longshore drift carries the sand into the open water instead of along the coastline

  3) The river flow coming from the North-West meets the current carrying the sand along the coast

  4) When the two currents meet, the water slows down and deposition happens

  5) Sand builds up and forms a long spit off the end of the coastline

  6) The spit has a curved end because now and then the wind changes direction and pushes the sand in a different direction

  7) A salt marsh forms in the area behind the spit where it's sheltered and the water is calmer so vegetation can begin to grow

  
• How are bars formed? (2)

  1) A bar is formed when a spit joins 2 headlands together

  2) The bar cuts off the bay between the headlands from the sea so a lagoon is formed behind the bar

  
• How has industry affected the coast?

  Gravel has been extracted from some beaches for construction which increases erosion as there's less material to protect cliffs.
• How has urbanisation affected the coast?

  Coasts with lots of settlement will have management schemes put in place to prevent erosion as there's homes and businesses to protect.
• How has agriculture affected the coast?

  Clearing vegetation to make room for crops can expose soil and rocks so more weathering occurs.
• What does hard engineering and soft engineering mean?

  Hard Engineering - man-made structures built to control the flow of the sea and reduce flooding and erosion.

  Soft Engineering - schemes set up using knowledge of the sea and its processes to reduce the effects of flooding and erosion.
• Beach Nourishment - description, type of engineering, 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages

  Sand that has been moved by longshore drift is transferred back by ship or lorry, bulldozers push sand back up where it has been removed.

  
  

  Soft engineering

  
  

  Advantages - looks natural and is cheap

  Disadvantages - requires constant maintenance and it's noisy for residents

  
• Rip Rap - description, type of engineering, 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages

  Hundreds of huge, hard rock boulders placed at the top of the beach to act as a barrier between land and sea. Water can flow through the gaps which decreases wave energy.

  
  

  Hard engineering

  
  

  Advantages - it's long lasting and looks natural

  Disadvantages - it's visually unattractive and can make the beach inaccessible.

  
• Groynes - description, type of engineering, 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages


  It's a physical wall made from wood or concrete that stretches from high to low water preventing movement of beach material due to longshore drift.

  
  

  Hard engineering

  
  

  Advantages - it keeps the beach in place for tourists and it's long lasting.

  Disadvantages - it's expensive and can increase erosion further down the coast.

  
• Sea Wall - description, type of engineering, 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages

  A physical wall made of concrete that creates a barrier between sea and land.

  
  

  Hard engineering

  
  

  Advantages - it's very effective and helps residents to feel safe.

  Disadvantages - it's visually unattractive and it's expensive.

  
• Managed Retreat - description, type of engineering, 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages

  It involves removing any coastal defences and allowing the coastline to erode at its own rate.

  
  

  Soft engineering

  
  

  Advantages - it doesn't need maintaining and the marshland creates new habitats.

  Disadvantages - choosing areas to do this may cause conflict and some people may have to move houses to get away from the coast.

  
• Describe deposition in rivers

  Deposition occurs when a river drops the eroded material that it's transporting when it loses velocity.
• How does geology influence the formation of river landforms?

  More resistant rocks = steeper valley sides

  Less resistant rocks = gently sloping valley sides
• How are waterfalls and gorges formed, and where are they found? (7)

  They are both found in the upper course of a river.

  1) Waterfalls are formed where a river flows over an area of hard rock followed by an area of softer rock

  2) The softer rock is eroded by hydraulic action and abrasion more than the hard rock, creating a 'step' in the river

  3) As water goes over the 'step' it erodes more of the softer rock

  4) A steep drop is eventually created, making a waterfall

  5) The hard rock is eventually undercut by erosion (wave cut notch). This is unsupported so collapses

  6) The collapsed rocks are swirled around at the foot of the waterfall where they erode the soft rock more by abrasion creating a deep plunge pool

  7) Over time, more undercutting causes more collapsing. The waterfall will retreat leaving a steep sided gorge.

  
• How do interlocking spurs form? (3)

  1) The rivers aren't powerful enough to erode laterally (sideways) and they have to wind around the high hillsides (spurs) that stick out into their paths either side

  2) These hillsides are often made of a resistant rock which the river can't erode, so the river erodes the less resistant rock between the spurs as it winds down the valley

  3) The hillsides that interlock with each other as the river winds around them are called interlocking spurs

  
• Polar Cells

  Air sinks over the poles producing high pressure, then this air meets the warm air from the ferrel cells.

  
• Ferrel Cells

  Warmer air on the surface is pulled towards the poles and they collect moisture on the way, and where they meet the polar cells, depressions form.