RNW (4TH)

• Explicit Information


  The ideas that are directly stated in the text
• Implicit Information


  The ideas that are implied or not directly stated
• Claim


  The central point or the main argument of an author
• Characteristics of a Good Claim

  • Should be debatable or arguable. It should make a point about the topic
  • Should express the writer's unique view about the topic
  • Is not neutral. It asserts the writer's position about a particular issue or topic (e.g., either agree or disagree, pros or cons, etc.)
  • Should be clearly worded or specific
  • Should be logical or rational
• Three Types of Claim

  • Claim of Facts
  • Claim of Value
  • Claim of Policy
• Claim of Fact


  A type of claim that can be verified as either true or false no matter how difficult it is. It normally tells "what is" and "what is not"
• Claim of Value


  Evaluative statements that can be qualified. They assert which conditions are better, more important, or more desirable. It gives an idea of what is good or bad
• Claim of Policy


  Statements that espouse for a specific action to be taken as solution to a particular problem. They are action-oriented claims that aim to provide alternatives, specific action plans, or recommendations to the usual societal problems or issues
• Evaluating Author's Claims


  • Be sure that the claims are supported by strong arguments based on premises that are reasonable
  • Be mindful of the author's approach in building his or her case
  • Determine the evidence from the text, which supports the writer's claim. Check for facts, statistics, and sources cited by the writer in his or her text
  • Distinguish facts from opinions
  • For general or broad claims, look for a more substantive evidence to prove the argument
• Logical Fallacies


  Errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument
• Logical Arguments


  • Consist of statements
  • Begin with the premise
  • End with the conclusion
• Two General Types of Reasoning

  • Deductive Argument
  • Inductive Argument
• Deductive Argument

  The truth of the premise is to prove that the truth of the conclusion is certain. Either valid or invalid, solely determined by the structure
• Inductive Argument


  The truth of the premises is supposed to prove that the truth of the conclusion is probable. Either strong or weak, it is true if the probability is above 50%
• Common Logical Fallacies


  • False Dilemma/False Dichotomy
  • Appeal to Ignorance
  • Slippery Slope
  • Complex Question
  • Appeal to Force (Ad Baculum)
  • Appeal to Pity (Ad Misericordiam)
  • Appeal to Consequences
  • Bandwagon
  • Appeal to the Person (Ad Hominem)
  • Appeal to Authority
  • Anonymous Authority
  • Hasty Generalization
  • False or Weak Analogy
  • Accident
  • Post Hoc
  • Wrong Direction
  • Complex Cause
  • Irrelevant Conclusion
  • Straw Man
  • Affirming the Consequent
  • Denying the Antecedent
  • Inconsistency
• Editorial


  An article or a news story that presents the newspaper's opinion on an issue. It is usually unsigned and reflects the majority vote of the editorial board, the governing body of the newspaper made up of editors and business managers. It is built on an argument and tries to persuade readers to think the same way they do. It is meant to influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and sometimes cause people to take action on an issue
• Characteristics of an Editorial

  • Introduction, body and conclusion like other news stories
  • An objective explanation of the issue, especially complex issues
  • A timely news angle
  • It includes opinions from the opposing viewpoint that refute directly the same issues the writer addresses
  • The opinions of the writer is delivered in a professional manner. Good editorials engage issues, not personalities and refrain from name-calling or other petty tactics of persuasion
  • Gives alternative solutions to the problem or issue being criticized. A good editorial should take a pro-active approach to making the situation better by using constructive criticism and giving solutions
  • A solid and concise conclusion that powerfully summarizes the writer's opinion. Give it some punch
• Four Types of Editorial Will

  • Explain or Interpret
  • Criticize
  • Persuade
  • Praise
• Steps in Writing an Editorial

  1. Pick a significant topic that has a current news angle and would interest readers

  2. Collect information and facts; include objective reporting; do research

  3. State your opinion briefly in the fashion of a thesis statement

  4. Explain the issue objectively as a reporter would and tell why this situation is important

  5. Give opposing viewpoint first with its quotations and facts

  6. Refute (reject) the other side and develop your case using facts, details, figures, quotations. Pick apart the other side's logic

  7. Concede a point of the opposition — they must have some good points you can acknowledge that would make you look rational

  8. Repeat key phrases to reinforce an idea into the reader's minds

  9. Give a realistic solution(s) to the problem that goes beyond common knowledge. Encourage critical thinking and pro-active reaction

  10. Wrap it up in a concluding punch that restates your opening remark (thesis statement)

  11. Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I"
• Reasoning


  The act of giving statements for justification and explanation. It is the ability of someone to defend something by giving out reasons
• Proper reasoning is needed to give evaluative statements
• Points you can acknowledge that would make you look rational


  • Repeat key phrases to reinforce an idea into the reader's minds
  • Give a realistic solution(s) to the problem that goes beyond common knowledge. Encourage critical thinking and pro-active reaction
  • Wrap it up in a concluding punch that restates your opening remark (thesis statement)
  • Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I"
• Sample Editorial Structure


  • I. Lead with an objective explanation of the issue/controversy
  • II. Present your opposition first
  • III. Directly refute the opposition's beliefs
  • IV. Give other, original reasons/analogies
  • V. Conclude with some punch
• Reasoning


  An act of giving statements for justification and explanation. It is the ability of someone to defend something by giving out reasons
• Evaluative Statements


  A way of giving a better explanation to show the strengths and the weaknesses of something through writing. It presents a value judgment based on a set of criteria. It is used in giving a sound judgment – a judgment that can be backed up or supported by valid reasons or proofs. It is the writer's way of explaining why a strength is a strength and a weakness a weakness based on the evidence gathered.
• Two Effective Steps in Composing Evaluative Statements

  1. Formulate Assertions (about the content and properties of the text read)

  2. Formulate Counterclaims (in response to claims made in the text read)
• Assertions


  Declarative sentences that give one's belief about something else as if it is true though it may not be. You have to examine which ideas are facts or opinions, make inferences or conclusions, and assess the overall quality of the text. Assertions contain languages that express evaluation such as useful, significant, important, insightful, detailed, up-to-date, comprehensive, practical, impressive, etc.
• Counterclaims


  Claims made to rebut a previous claim. To rebut means to contradict someone's statement through a formal argument. They provide a contrasting perspective to the main argument. Counterclaim is the opposition you make about the claim of a writer. You must recognize the value of hedges when you state your counterclaims.
• Hedges


  Words or phrases that minimize negative impact of a criticism. Used to give a courteous tone in your writing. They come in different forms such as modals (may, could, would, etc.), frequency adverbs (usually, generally, commonly), and probability adverbs (probably, possibly, presumably).
• Textual Evidence


  Validates assertions and counterclaims made about a text.
• Assertion


  An opinion or claim, and authors make assertions in the text they write.
• Controversial Claims


  If unchecked or unverified, can damage people's reputation, make others believe in false information, and possible spark conflict among parties.
• Controversy


  A situation in which people express disagreement, dissent, dislike, or even rage. In terms of reading, controversies arise from the way people react to the ideas of the writers.
• Claims become controversial when they: 1) Go against popular beliefs; 2) Attack or criticize others; 3) Introduce something that is presently not accepted in the culture; and 4) Do not include proof or evidence for their claims.
• Proof/Evidence for Claims Made


  Everything we claim or assert needs proof or evidence. An educator by the name of Dr. Allan de Guzman suggests that we should express our claims immediately beside or next to the support.
• Four types of Textual Evidence

  • A. Statistical Evidence
  • B. Testimonial Evidence
  • C. Anecdotal Evidence
  • D. Analogical Evidence
• Statistical Evidence


  Every time you use numbers to support a main point, you're relying on statistical evidence to carry your argument.
• Testimonial Evidence


  Evidence from people in commercials testifying about the quality of a product.
• Anecdotal Evidence


  Evidence based on a person's observations of the world. Useful for disproving generalizations because all you need is one example that contradicts a claim.
• Analogical Evidence


  Mainly useful when dealing with a topic that is under-researched. If you are on the cutting edge of an issue, you're the person breaking ground. When you don't have statistics to refer to or other authorities on the matter to quote, you have to get your evidence from somewhere.