operant conditioning

• Operant Conditioning


  Type of learning whereby the consequence of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future
• Operant Conditioning model


  • Desirable consequences will lead to that behaviour to be more likely to occur in the future
  • Undesirable consequences will make it more likely that the behaviour will not be repeated
• Operant


  Any response or set of responses that act on the environment to produce a consequence. They are voluntary actions and are influenced by consequences
• 3 Phase Model of Operant Conditioning

  1. Antecedent (what happened before)

  2. Behaviour (what happens)

  3. Consequence (what happens after)
• Antecedent


  The stimuli that are present and preceding a specific behaviour
• Antecedent stimulus


  When an antecedent influences the chance of a behaviour
• Behaviour


  The voluntary operant response that occurs in the presence of an antecedent stimulus
• Consequence


  The environmental event that occurs just after the behaviour
• The Antecedent Phase


  • The antecedent is any stimulus (object or event) that precedes a specific behaviour by signalling the proper consequence for the behaviour
  • The antecedent does not elicit the behaviour
  • The antecedent allows the organism to predict the outcome of their behaviour
  • It is the desired consequence that elicits the behaviour
• The Behaviour Phase


  • We learn from experience to associate antecedent stimuli with specific behaviours (operant responses)
  • Our prior experience with the consequences of our behaviours shape our future behaviour
  • If we can associate an operant response to a specific environmental cue, and it results in a desirable consequence, then we are more likely to repeat that voluntary behaviour or pattern of behaviours
• The Consequence Phase


  • Behaviour that is followed by a reward (reinforcer) is more likely to make the behaviour occur again
  • Behaviour that is followed by a punishment is more likely to make the behaviour occur less frequently or disappear
  • Whether a consequence is perceived as a reinforcer or a punishment is up to the individual
• Reinforcement


  Occurs when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency of an operant response that it follows
• Positive Reinforcement


  Once a desired operant response has been made, the behaviour is strengthened with a satisfying consequence
• Negative Reinforcement


  Once a desired operant response has been made, the behaviour is strengthened by withholding an undesired consequence
• Punishment


  The delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response
• Positive Punishment


  Occurs when a stimulus is provided that decreases the likelihood of a response occurring again
• Negative Punishment


  Occurs when a stimulus is removed to decrease the likelihood of a response occurring again
• Response Cost


  The removal of any valued stimulus, regardless of whether it caused the behaviour. This is the cost of making the operant response
• Observational Learning


  When someone uses observation of a model's actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions
• Model


  • Who or what is being observed
  • A "Live" model is a real life person who may be demonstrating the behaviours
  • A "Symbolic" model is a fictional character from a book or media
• Modelling


  The act of performing a behaviour that will be learnt
• Learner


  The person who is observing the model and the behaviour
• Multi stage process of observational learning

  1. Attention

  2. Retention

  3. Reproduction

  4. Motivation/Reinforcement
• Social Learning


  Albert Bandura's study of observational learning led to the development of the social learning theory, which emphasises the environment in which learning occurs
• According to social learning theory, we learn by seeing others performing behaviours, and we see the consequences and values of those behaviours. This is a form of conditioning
• Vicarious Conditioning


  The indirect learning by seeing other people being conditioned. A learner will be more likely to copy a model whose behaviour is reinforced, and less likely to copy behaviour that is punished
• Vicarious Reinforcement


  Increases the learner's likelihood of behaving like the model
• Vicarious Punishment


  Decreases the learner's likelihood of behaving like the model
• Bandura believed we require a crucial cognitive process to remember and recall the behaviour
• Bandura believed that learning of values and beliefs (ways of being, knowing and thinking) could be acquired through similar social learning
• Attention


  • A learner MUST pay attention to the model and actively watch the modelled behaviour
  • If not, we cannot recognise the distinctive features of the behaviour
• Factors about the Learner that influence attention

  • Learner has physical ability to perceive the behaviour
  • Learner has interest in learning the behaviour
  • Learner considers the behaviour useful or rewarding to know
  • Learner considers the behaviour to be unusual or distinct
• Factors about the Model that influence attention

  • Model is perceived positively
  • Model is perceived as being similar in feature to the Learner
  • Model is familiar
  • Model's behaviour is distinct from competing models
  • Model's behaviour is perceived as something that can be imitated
• Retention


  • Once the model has been observed, the learner must be able to remember the model's behaviour
  • The behaviour must be stored as a mental representation
  • A mental representation is more likely to be recalled if it is meaningful to the learner, encoded and stored accurately in memory, and memory strategies to rehearse the information are effective
• Reproduction


  • Learner must be capable of imitating the behaviour
  • We must develop the skills necessary for a behaviour
  • Some skills like coordination and flexibility cannot be achieved by everyone
• Motivation and Reinforcement


  • Motivation - the learner must want to perform the observed behaviour. The behaviour must be seen as useful or rewarding
  • Reinforcement - Factors that can influence a learner's motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour and increase the likelihood of reproduction
• Types of Reinforcement to impact motivation

  • External Reinforcement - Learning by consequences
  • Vicarious Reinforcement - Learning by seeing the model receive consequences
  • Self Reinforcement - Learning by achieving self made goals