General Science

• Science


  The systematic study through observation and experimentation. It is the building and organizing of knowledge by following the scientific method.
• Branches of Science


  • Formal science
  • Social science
  • Natural science
• Formal science


  • Deals with abstract structures in formal systems, including mathematics and logic
• Social science


  • Deals with human behavior around its social and cultural aspects
• Natural science


  • Studies natural phenomena using empirical evidence. It can be further divided into life science (biology) and physical science (physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth science)
• Pure science


  The aforementioned branches of science
• Applied science


  The application of scientific knowledge for practical use
• Research


  The act of systematically studying to find answers to a scientific problem, undertaken to build science by increasing its stock of knowledge
• Induction


  A reasoning process where a specific observation is used to make a general claim. It is mainly used to make theories and is called the bottom-up approach.
• Deduction


  A reasoning process where general premises are used to make specific conclusions. It is mainly used to test theories and is called the top-down approach.
• The Scientific Method


  1. Identify the problem

  2. Make observations

  3. State the hypothesis

  4. Test the hypothesis (experiment)

  5. Analyze and interpret resulting data

  6. Draw conclusions
• Experiment


  • A controlled investigation of natural phenomena where all factors are kept the same except for the one being tested (independent variable). The resulting variable (dependent variable) is measured.
• Hypothesis


  An educated guess that should answer the identified problem
• Alternative hypothesis


  The hypothesis of interest, stating there is a significant relationship between variables
• Null hypothesis


  States there is no significant relationship between variables
• Theory


  A well-supported, testable explanation of natural phenomena
• Scientific law


  A statement that describes or predicts an observed natural phenomenon
• Axiom


  A statement which everyone agrees is true, also called a postulate in mathematical context
• Method


  A systematic process of performing a scientific task, such as conducting research
• Pseudoscience


  An approach to gathering knowledge that claims to be scientific, but violates tenets of science
• Paradigm


  A framework of thoughts from which reality is interpreted
• Measurement Errors


  Difference between the measured and the actual values
• Types of measurement errors

  • Systematic errors
  • Negligent errors
  • Random errors
• Systematic errors


  Errors caused by a predictable cause, therefore consistent
• Negligent errors


  Also called gross errors, happen when the operator of the measuring device is at fault
• Random errors


  Often fleeting, may not be attributed to a singular cause
• Absolute error


  Difference between the measured value and the actual value
• Relative error


  Ratio of the absolute error to the expected value
• Percent error


  Percentage form of relative error
• Accurate measurements


  Close to the true value
• Precise measurements


  Close to each other, can be replicated repeatedly
• Significant figures


  Number of digits in the result that are known with some degree of reliability
• Rules for determining significant figures

  • All nonzero digits are significant
  • Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
  • Zeros before nonzero digits at the start are not significant
  • Zeros after nonzero digits at the end with decimal are significant
  • Zeros after nonzero digits at the end without decimal may be significant
• Scientific notation


  Used for writing very large or very small numbers
• Absolute uncertainty


  Indicated by 'plus-minus' sign, with uncertainty value affixed
• Relative uncertainty


  Indicated as percent error
• Time zones


  One-hour differences between places in different zones of the globe, divided by longitudes
• Greenwich Time Zone (UTC)


  Reference time zone, other places defined by offset hours from UTC