PHONOLOGY

• Consonant sounds


  Sounds produced by setting air in motion from the lungs
• Consonant sounds

  • Often represent certain speech sounds that are realised when the air passage is blocked totally or partially before it leaves the mouth, such as with the tongue, lips, or throat
• Parameters for classifying consonant sounds

  • Place of articulation
  • Manner of articulation

  
• Place of articulation

  • Parts of the mouth used to pronounce the particular sounds
• Place of articulation categories

  • Bilabial
  • Dental
  • Labio-dental
  • Palatal
  • Alveolar
  • Palato-alveolar
  • Velar
  • Glottal

  
• Phonology


  The study of the system of contrastive relationships among the speech sounds that constitute the fundamental components of a language
• Phonology


  • Studies the existing sounds in a language and across different languages
  • Studies how sounds in a language are categorised, organised and used to convey meaning
• Phoneme


  The meaningfully different sound units in a language (the smallest units of sound)
• Phonemes


  • The "p" and "b" in "pat" and "bat"
  • The vowels in "pat" and "pet"
• Minimal pair


  Two words that differ by a single phoneme
• It is important to learn English pronunciation by virtue of phonemes rather than letters of the alphabet
• Phonemes


  • The vowel phoneme at the beginning of "awesome" and "orange"
  • The consonant phoneme at the end of "awesome" and "slim"
• Allophone


  Variants of the same phoneme, referring to the different ways of pronouncing a phoneme based on its environment in a word
• Allophones of /l/ in "little" are produced slightly differently, with the second one sounding slightly deeper
• Segmental Phonology


  Concerned with the smallest units of sound (phonemes) and their distribution and patterns within words
• Segmental Phonology examines


  • Phones
  • Allophones
• Consonant phonemes


  • /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /m/, /n/, /h/, /ʃ/, /ŋ/
• Vowel phonemes


  • /æ/, /ɛ/, /ə/, /a/, /e/, /i:/, /u:/, /3:/
• Suprasegmental Phonology


  Concerned with the way in which phonemes are combined to form larger units of sound (syllables), and features that extend more than one segment, such as intonation and rhythm
• Pitch


  The perceived frequency of a sound, playing an important role in conveying meaning through intonation and tone
• Stress


  The emphasis placed on a particular syllable or word when speaking, which can change the meaning of a word or an entire sentence
• Intonation


  The variation in pitch across a phrase or sentence that can convey different meanings or emotions
• Types of Tone in English

  • Falling Tune
  • Rising Tune
  • Fall-Rise
  • Rise-Fall
• Rhythm


  The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech, which shapes the flow and tempo of spoken language
• The sounds are organized into a system of contrasts, which signal differences of meaning within the language
• Quantitative analysis


  The branch of chemistry that focuses on the measurement and quantification of chemical properties and phenomena
• Quantitative analysis in chemistry

  1. Determination of the amounts, concentrations, and proportions of substances in chemical reactions or mixtures

  2. Utilizes techniques such as titrations, gravimetric analysis, spectrophotometry, chromatography, and atomic absorption spectroscopy to measure quantities of substances accurately
• Quantitative measurements in chemistry

  • Determining the concentration of a solute in a solution
  • Calculating reaction yields
  • Measuring the mass of a compound

  
• Titration


  A common laboratory technique used in analytical chemistry to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution
• Titration process


  Controlled addition of a known quantity of a solution (the titrant) of known concentration to a solution of the substance being analyzed (the analyte) until the reaction between the two is complete
• Types of titrations


  • Acid-Base titration
  • Redox Titration
  • Complexometric titration
• Acid-Base titration


  Involves the neutralization reaction between an acid and a base
• Types of Acid-Base titrations

  • Strong Acid - Strong Base Titration
  • Weak Acid - Strong Base Titration
  • Strong Acid - Weak Base Titration
  • Weak Acid - Weak Base Titration
• Titrant


  A substance with a known concentration
• Analyte


  Substance with unknown concentration that we are to determine its concentration
• Indicator


  A substance added to the analyte solution (or titrant solution) during a titration to detect the endpoint of the reaction
• Common indicators


  • Phenolphthalein
  • Methyl orange
  • Bromothymol blue
  • Litmus
• Shapes of titration curves

  • Strong acid - Strong base titration
  • Weak acid - Strong base titration
  • Strong acid - Weak base titration
  • Weak acid - Weak base titration
• Molarity


  Number of moles/volume
• Dilution Equation


  C1V1 = C2V2