Topic 4 - Methodology

• Action research


  A systematic approach used by educators to improve teaching and learning. It involves identifying a challenge in teaching practice, developing a plan to address it, and implementing changes in the classroom. Data is then collected to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. This process encourages critical reflection and collaboration among teachers to continuously improve their practice. The ultimate goal of action research is to bring about positive changes in student learning outcomes through evidence-based teaching strategies.
• Philosophical perspectives on action research

  • Social constructivism
  • Positivism
  • Absolutism
  • Transformative paradigm
• Aspects of philosophical perspectives

  • Ontology
  • Epistemology
  • Methodology
  • Role of researcher
  • Focus
• Positivism


  Objective reality exists independently of perception. Emphasizes empirical evidence and scientific methods. Quantitative methods; deductive reasoning. Objectivity and neutrality; separate from the subject. Identifying universal laws and regularities.
• Interpretivism


  Reality is socially constructed and subjective. Emphasizes subjective understanding through qualitative methods. Qualitative methods; inductive reasoning. Interaction with subjects; acknowledges researcher bias. Understanding meaning and context.
• Constructivism


  Reality is constructed through human interpretation and interaction. Emphasizes multiple perspectives and subjective interpretation. Mixed methods; iterative processes. Active participation; co-construction of knowledge with subjects. Understanding how knowledge is created and shared.
• Action research vs. conventional research
• Steps in carrying out Action Research/Action Research Cycles

  1. Problem/Issue

  2. What

  3. Why

  4. How

  5. When

  6. Think

  7. Talk

  8. Read

  9. Ask

  10. Intervention

  11. Outcome

  12. Analyse/Further Reflection
• There is very little or no separation of research from practice, and little or no separation of knowing and doing


  • Experience
  • Literature
  • Research Focus
• Qualitative data analysis


  Plays a pivotal role in TESL research, offering deep insights into language learning processes, teaching methodologies, and cultural influences
• Qualitative data


  • Encompasses non-numerical information such as interviews, observations, and texts, focusing on understanding phenomena from a subjective perspective
• Quantitative data


  • Involves numerical measurements, emphasizing statistical analysis and generalizability
• Types of Qualitative Data in TESL research

  • In-depth interviews with learners and educators
  • Classroom observations
  • Analysis of language learning materials
• Ethical Considerations


  • Ensuring confidentiality and informed consent, respecting participants' privacy and cultural sensitivities, and obtaining necessary ethical approvals before commencing research
• Preparing for Qualitative Data Analysis

  1. Data Collection

  2. Organizing the Data

  3. Familiarization with the Data

  4. Coding

  5. Finding Themes

  6. Interpretation and Reporting
• Organizing the Data


  1. Transcribing Interviews

  2. Organizing Notes and Observations

  3. Using Software Tools for Data Management
• Familiarization with the Data


  1. Reading Through the Data

  2. Making Initial Notes
• Coding


  Labeling segments of data with tags (codes) to categorize and facilitate the identification of themes. Inductive coding emerges from the data, while deductive coding applies pre-existing frameworks.
• Coding


  1. Developing a Coding Scheme

  2. Applying Codes to the Data
• Finding Themes


  1. Identifying Patterns and Themes

  2. Refining Themes

  3. Relating Themes to Research Questions
• Interpretation and Reporting


  1. Interpreting the Data in context

  2. Structuring the Qualitative Research Report

  3. Ensuring Credibility and Trustworthiness
• Qualitative Study


  • Sampling
  • Data Collection instruments
  • Validity and reliability
  • Data collection procedure
  • Data analysis procedure
• Sampling


  The process of selecting a subset of participants from a larger population to represent the target group in a research study
• Which of the following is NOT a type of non-probability sampling technique commonly used in qualitative research?
• Purposive sampling


  Involves selecting participants based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant to the research objectives
• Convenience sampling involves selecting participants who are easily accessible or readily available
• Snowball sampling


  Participants are selected through referrals from existing participants
• Advantages and disadvantages of using convenience sampling

  • Advantages: Quick and easy to implement, cost-effective, useful for exploratory studies or when access to a specific population is limited
  • Disadvantages: May lead to sampling bias, lack of representativeness, potential for limited generalizability of findings
• Snowball sampling


  The primary goal is to expand the sample size through referrals from existing participants
• Researcher judgment plays a key role in purposive sampling
• Protocol


  A detailed plan or set of guidelines that outlines the procedures and steps to be followed during the research process
• Types of protocols


  • Interview protocol
  • Observation protocol
  • Fieldwork Protocol
  • Focus Group Discussion protocol
• Interview protocol


  A detailed guide that outlines the questions and topics to be covered during interviews with participants
• Observation protocol


  Provides guidelines for researchers conducting observational studies, including details on what to observe, how to record observations, and any specific behaviors or events of interest
• Fieldwork protocol


  Provides guidelines for researchers conducting fieldwork or field research, including details on participant recruitment, data collection methods, ethical considerations, and procedures for handling data
• Focus Group Discussion protocol


  Outlines the topics and questions to be covered during focus group sessions, providing a structure for the discussion and including prompts for facilitators
• Semi-structured interview guide


  Allows flexibility in the interview process while covering key topics
• Narrative prompt


  A broad, open-ended question that encourages participants to share detailed stories, experiences, or descriptions without much interruption
• Probing question


  A follow-up question used to delve deeper into a participant's response, seeking clarification, elaboration, or additional details
• Advantages and disadvantages of using a diary or journal as a data collection instrument


  • Advantages: Allows for capturing participants' thoughts and experiences in real-time, provides rich and detailed data, offers insights into participants' daily lives
  • Disadvantages: Relies on participants' motivation to consistently record entries, potential for bias or selective reporting, requires effort in data management and analysis