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• Anatomical position


  The standard reference position used to describe the location of body structures

  
• Anatomical planes


  • Hypothetical (imaginary) planes used to transect the body, in order to describe the location of structure
  • Sagittal plane: oriented vertically and divides the body into right and left
  • Median (med-sagittal, median sagittal) plane: oriented vertically passing longitudinally through the body, divides the body into equal right and left halves
  • Coronal (frontal) plane: oriented vertically and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
  • Transverse, horizontal, or axial planes: divide the body into superior and inferior parts

  
• Anatomical sections


  • Longitudinal sections
  • Transverse sections (cross section)
  • Oblique sections

  
• Anterior


  Nearer to the front (in humans, toward the front of the torso)

  
• Posterior


  Near to the back (in humans, toward the back of the torso)
• Superior


  Nearer to the vertex (top of the head)
• Inferior


  Nearer to the sole (of the foot)
• Medial


  Near to the median plane
• Lateral


  Near to away from the median plane
• Proximal


  Nearer to origin
• Distal


  Away from origin
• Superficial


  Nearer to the surface (of the body)
• Deep


  Away from the surface (of the body)
• External


  Away from the center (of an organ)
• Internal

  Nearer to the center (of an organ)
• Terms of laterality

  • Unilateral: unpaired structures present on one side only
  • Bilateral: paired structures present on both sides
  • Ipsilateral: relating things to the same side of the body
  • Contralateral: relating things to the different side of the body

  
• Flexion and extension

  • Flexion: indicates a decrease in the angle between the bones or parts of the body
  • Extension: indicates an increase or straightening in the angle between the bones or parts of the body
• Adduction and abduction


  • Adduction: moving toward the median plane of the body
  • Abduction: moving away from the median plane of the body
  • Adduction and abduction movement occur in the coronal plane
• Medial and lateral rotation

  • Medial rotation (internal rotation): brings the anterior surface to the median plane
  • Lateral rotation (external rotation): takes the anterior surface away from the median plane
  • Medial and lateral rotation movement occur in the transverse plane
• Pronation and supination

  • Supination: palm or forearm faces up
  • Pronation: palm or forearm faces down
• Eversion and inversion


  • Inversion: moves the sole of the foot toward the median plane (facing the sole medially)
  • Eversion: moves the sole of the foot away from the median plane (turning the sole laterally)
• Lymph vascular system


  A system of vessels that transport lymph fluid throughout the body
• Endocrine system


  The system of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body's functions
• Lymphoid organs


  • Composed principally of lymphatic tissue, including lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and thymus

  
• Lymph nodes


  • Small bean-shaped glands that filter bacteria and foreign particles from lymph fluid
  • Located in the neck, armpits, groin, and deeper within the body
  • May become swollen with activated lymphocytes during infection
• Structure of lymph nodes

  1. Cortex (darker region with lymph nodules and germinal center)

  2. Medulla (lighter region with medullary cords, lymph sinuses, blood capillaries, and macrophages)

  3. Surrounded by connective tissue capsule

  4. Hilum where blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels enter and leave
• Thymus


  • Composed of two identical lobes in the anterior superior mediastinum
  • Surrounded by connective tissue capsule with trabeculae subdividing it into lobules
  • Cortex (dark color) and medulla (light color) with same cell types including reticular epithelial cells, thymocytes, and macrophages
  • Medulla contains Hassall's corpuscles

  
• Thymopoiesis


  The process in the thymus by which thymocytes differentiate into mature T lymphocytes

  
• Spleen


  • Largest haem lymph organ in the body, situated under the left diaphragm
  • Surrounded by connective tissue capsule with trabeculae
  • Red pulp (splenic sinusoids and cords) and white pulp (lymphoid tissue)

  
• Tonsils


  • Pair of soft tissue masses in the pharynx
  • Composed of lymphoid tissue, forming a discontinuous ring
  • Palatine, lingual, and pharyngeal tonsils with different epithelial linings
• Hormone

  An organic chemical secreted by endocrine cells into the blood to exert effects at a distance from the site of secretion
• Chemical structures of hormones

  • Amino acid derived (modified amino acids or amines)
  • Peptides (short chains of amino acids)
  • Proteins (long chains of amino acids)
  • Steroids (lipid molecules made from cholesterol)
• Endocrine organs


  • Pituitary gland
  • Pineal gland
  • Thyroid gland
  • Parathyroid glands
  • Adrenal glands (cortex and medulla)

  
• Other endocrine cells


  • Pancreas
  • Gonads
  • Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus


  • Small region of the brain at the base, near the pituitary gland
  • Connects the nervous system to the endocrine system
  • Releases hormones that control the pituitary gland and other endocrine glands

  
• Pituitary gland


  • Lies in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
  • Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) with pars distalis, pars tuberalis, and pars intermedia
  • Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) with pars nervosa and infundibulum

  
• Hormones secreted by the pituitary gland

  • TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
  • ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
  • And 7 other hormones
• Pars intermedia


  Made up of cords and follicles of weakly basophilic cells that contain small secretory granules, their function is not known
• Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)


  Develops from nerve tissue, consists of a large portion
• Pars nervosa


  Composed of unmyelinated axons of secretory neurons, ADH, oxytocin are released by secretory neurons in the hypothalamus and stored in dilated ends of neural axons