Human Geography

• Urbanisation


  The increase in proportion of people living in urban areas
• Suburbanisation


  The movement of people from city centres to the suburbs
• Counter-urbanisation 


  The movement of people out of the city and into rural areas
• Urban resurgence 


  Movement of people back into the city centre (common is post-industrial countries like the UK)
• World cities


  Cities which exert financial and political influence internationally (London, NY, Tokyo)
• Deindustrialisation 


  HIC countries often see the collapse in industrial cities as products are cheaper for coms to manufacture in LICs, as a result industries cannot afford to be situated in HIC cities and this results in unemployment then dereliction.
• Decentralisation


  Land prices in urban areas increase and businesses are forced to relocate outside of the inner city. The inner city can become derelict.
• UDCs


  The private sector funds decentralised cities to restore derelict areas. (London Docklands 1981). UDCs are criticised for ignoring social issues created by investing in the area.
• Enterprise Zones


  Aim is to start up companies and build business parks in areas of high unemployment.
• City Challenge

  Local authorities would compete for government funding to regenerate deprived urban areas. These had a focus on benefiting the community, but came from the tax-payers' pocket and could be rendered unfair for cities not chosen.
• Partnership Schemes

  Government works with private companies to regenerate cities considering physical, economic and social conditions of deprived areas.
• Topography(PF)

  How physical features of landscape can influence the form of an urban area.
• Physical factors affecting urban form

  Topography

  Water

  Natural resources

  Land type
• Human factors affecting urban form

  Planning (in expansion)

  Infrastructure

  Land value
• CBD

  (Central Business District) - a Central zone of the city with shops and businesses. Where land value is often highest.
• Town Centre Mixed Developments


  Where land use is mixed. Eg: Business, entertainment, heritage and residential components.
• Fortress Developments

  Developments with implemented high security. Eg: High walls, CCTV, guards. Often found in suburban areas of big cities. Only certain people can afford this measure, and so these Developments can strain social segregation and encourage harmful exclusion of minorities. Eg: Capetown, SA.
• Cultural and Heritage Quarters

  Areas within a city which showcase the history or character of a city. Eg: Museums, galleries, festivals, theatres.
• Gentrified Areas


  When private investors aim to increase the land value of a previously "eye-sore" area in the inner city. Eg Notting Hill. This often however drives away the previous communities who can no longer afford to rent homes on the gentrified land.
• Edge Cities

  Usually developed on land well linked to another bigger city, and population increases as it is easy to live affordable outside a working city and commute on the efficient transport. Eg LA.
• Post-Modern Western Cities

  Cities which are typically post-modern. Meaning they have multiple centers for different purposes (Eg business districts, retail, heritage), progressive and varied architecture and predominantly tertiary and quaternary industries.
• UHI


  When an urban area is warmer than a rural area. Highest temps are in the CBD and inner city.
• Causes of UHI:

  Absorption of heat by urban surfaces (albido effect.

  Air pollution

  Heat from human activity

  Less evapotranspiration
• Wind in cities:

  Wind speed usually lower as buildings create friction and turbulence. But, Wind can also be channeled between the "urban canyon" and increases in speed.
• Rain, Storms, Fog:


  Warm air can hold more water, causes conventional uplifts and as the air cools valour condenses -> conventional rainfall. Pollutants can act as condensation nuclei whoch water molecules cling to andencourages more clouds to form. This also causes fog when water cling to smoke (and smog)
• Photochemical smog

  Pollutants like nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides and hydrocarbons from burning fossil fuels come into contact with UV from the sun and break down into harmful photochemical smog. This is common in hot climates Eg Mexico City.
• Pollution in urban areas can be reduced by:

  Congestion charging

  Pedestrianisation

  Improving public transport

  Alternative fuelling
• There are three kinds of urban waste:

  Industrial- produced in manufacturing Eg scrap metal.

  Commercial- produced by businesses Eg paper.

  Personal- household waste Eg plastics.
• Why does waste disposal vary between countries?

  Economic characteristics Eg rich in developing countries consume more-> we produce more waste.

  Lifestyle Eg people living in towerblocks less likely to frequently recycle.

  Attitudes Eg developed countries "throw-away culture" with clothes and food etc.
• Recycling

  Waste is reproduced into new products.
• Incineration

  Waste is burnt, reducing load going to land fill. This does not release pollutants, however may discourage people from recycling as its a safety net.
• Landfill/ Burial

  Disposing of masses of waste in one concentrated area letting it accumulate.
• Submergence

  The dumping of waste in the ocean is illegal, but this can happen in developing places like off the coast of Somalia. This can release toxins and harm marine ecosystems