Organisation

• Tissues are groups of similar cells working together to perform a particular function.
• Denatured enzymes lose their shape and cannot bind to substrate molecules.
• The denaturation temperature is different for every protein and depends on its amino acid sequence.
• Proteins with more hydrophobic residues have higher denaturation temperatures due to stronger interactions between nonpolar side chains.
• Enzyme activity is affected by changes in temperature due to denaturation.
• Enzyme activity can be restored by cooling the solution below the denaturation temperature, allowing the proteins to refold into their original shapes.
• Enzyme activity is affected by changes in temperature due to denaturation, which can be reversed if the temperature returns to its original state.
• Protein denaturation occurs when the secondary structure (alpha helices or beta sheets) unfolds due to changes in pH, salt concentration, or heat.
• Enzyme activity can be restored by cooling the solution below the denaturation temperature, allowing the protein to refold into its original structure.
• Heating proteins can cause them to unfold, leading to the loss of tertiary structure and active site conformation.
• Different types of proteins have varying degrees of stability at different temperatures.
• Some proteins may not regain full activity even if they return to their native state because some bonds may break during denaturation.
• DNA replication involves unwinding the double helix, separating the strands, adding complementary nucleotides to each strand using DNA polymerase, and joining them with phosphodiester bonds.
• DNA is made up of nucleotides that contain a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).
• Nucleotide sequences determine genetic information.
• Ribonucleic acids (RNA) are single stranded and play roles in transcription and translation.
• Denatured proteins lose their biological function and are no longer able to perform their specific roles within cells.
• Different types of enzymes may require different conditions to maintain their shape and function.
• Changes in environmental factors such as pH, salt concentration, and temperature can affect the stability of proteins and cause them to become denatured.
• Denatured enzymes lose their catalytic function and cannot carry out chemical reactions.
• The tertiary structure of an enzyme determines its shape and active site, where substrates bind and undergo chemical reactions.
• Changes in pH, salt concentration, or heat can disrupt the tertiary structure of an enzyme, leading to loss of catalytic function.
• The two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonding between adenine and thymine or cytosine and guanine.
• Protein folding occurs through hydrogen bond formation between amino acid residues on different parts of the polypeptide chain.
• Denatured proteins lose their biological function but may retain some physical properties such as size, shape, and color.
• Protein folding can be influenced by factors such as pH, temperature, salt concentration, and chemical agents like detergents or urea.
• The process of protein folding can be influenced by factors such as pH level, temperature, and presence of other molecules.
• The sequence of these triplets codes for amino acids which make up proteins.
• Transcription occurs in the nucleus where RNA polymerase binds to a promoter region on the DNA template strand and reads it in the 5' to 3' direction.
• The sequence of bases along the length of the DNA molecule encodes genetic information.
• DNA is made up of four nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) that form complementary base pairs.
• Cells

  Make up all living things
• Tissue

  A group of specialised cells with a similar structure and function, can be made of more than one type of cell
• Tissue examples

  • Muscular tissue
  • Epithelial tissue
• Organs

  Formed from a number of different tissues, working together to produce a specific function
• Organ example

  • Stomach
• Organ systems

  Organs organised to work together to perform a certain function
• Organ system example


  • Digestive system
• Organs in the digestive system

  • Glands (salivary glands, pancreas)
  • Stomach
  • Small intestine
  • Liver
  • Gall bladder
  • Large intestine
  • Rectum
  • Anus
• Enzymes


  Biological catalysts that increase the rate of reaction without being used up