establishment of weimar republic 1918-24

• By 1918, it was apparent that Germany was losing the war. Both the military and civilians were exhausted.

  War economy

  • Total war geared the economy to the war effort, prioritising military over civilians.
  • The government introduced price ceilings, requisitioning and then rationing. Food, even potatoes, were in short supply. So were coal and clothing.
  • Long queues for food, malnutrition and starvation were common. 80,000 children died of starvation in 1916. The harsh winter of 1916-17 made shortages worse.
• Losing morale

  • By autumn 1918, the German army recognised it needed to sue for peace. It realised US President Wilson would be more amenable to a civilian government.
  • Bitterness and resentment at the sacrifice and hardship that people faced through the war fuelled social and political unrest, even in the armed forces.
• War developments 1917-1918

  • In 1917, the new Russian government admitted defeat against Germany. Germany imposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on Russia in spring 1918.
  • In 1918, a major spring offensive by the German army failed.
• Social discontent

  • Profiteers and black marketeers grew wealthy, and the rich did not suffer like the majority. This worsened social divisions and generated more anger.
  • There was a wave of strikes across Germany in 1917.
• By 1918, people who once really respected authority became rebellious and open to revolutionary ideas. Meanwhile, the traditional élites worried not only about preventing revolution, but how they could escape the blame for the defeat.

  Impact of the Bolshevik Revolution

  • The 1917, Bolshevik Revolution in Russia alarmed political élites across Europe and led to greater political activity among the working classes.
  • A small group of Bolshevik revolutionaries showed it was possible to overthrow an autocratic monarchy and that the army could not prevent revolution
• Revolutionary winds in Germany

  • Economic problems and military failures in 1918 destroyed morale and led to criticism of the government. People became more open to revolutionary politics.
  • Mutinies spread from Kiel across Germany. Revolutionary committees were formed, demonstrating anger at Germany’s leaders, military and political.
  • The unrest in Germany from 1918 into 1919, alongside important political change, is often called the ‘German Revolution’ – a revolution from below.
• General Ludendorff and Prince Max

  • The military wanted a new, civilian government to be formed – preferably from moderate and left wing parties – to admit Germany’s defeat and take the blame.
  • It was hoped that a civilian government would get better peace terms.
  • Ludendorff persuaded the Kaiser to make Prince Max Germany’s Chancellor in October 1918. Prince Max had credibility with the military and civilians.
  • More importantly, Prince Max could bring the SPD into government. So a moderate to left-wing, civilian government would take the blame for defeat.
• Key political developments in 1918

  • 29 Sept: German generals recommend a civilian government and armistice.
  • 3 Oct: Prince Max is made chancellor and forms a government.
  • 31 Oct: Kiel mutiny. Unrest spreads.
  • 9 Nov: Max hands chancellorship to SPD leader Ebert. A republic is declared. The Kaiser abdicates and flees to the Netherlands.
  • 10 Nov: Ebert makes a secret deal with the army: the Ebert-Groener Pact.
  • 11 Nov: The new German government signs the armistice.
• Chancellor Ebert

  • Ebert was made chancellor. He was leader of the SPD, an elected deputy in the Reichstag and chair of the Council of People’s Deputies.
  • He brought members of the more radical USPD into the government as well.
  • Ebert made a deal with General Groener, vital to the transition to a republic.
  • Groener guaranteed the army and civil service would support Ebert’s government if it supported the officer corps and protected the army’s food supply.
• Weimar was the place chosen for the Constitutional Convention because it represented Germany’s culture rather than its militarism, which Berlin did. Berlin was also too unstable. Weimar seemed to signal a break with the past and suggest a new kind of future.

  Germany's left wing parties

  • SPD (moderate), USPD (radical) and KPD (Communist). These tended to attract more working class voters.
  • The left wing believed in greater economic and social equality, wealth redistribution, more taxation to spend on public services, and greater workers’ rights.
• Germany's centre parties

  • DDP and Zentrum (largely Catholic parties but with a wide range of supporters and views. Generally pro Weimar Republic).
  • The centre held liberal ideas such as individual and economic freedom, a more equal distribution of wealth, and some taxation for public service
• Germany's right wing parties

  • DVP, DNVP.
  • The right wing was conservative. It favoured authoritarian leaders, low taxation, traditional values, less equality and most were monarchists.
• Political turmoil pre-convention

  • The USPD had left the government in December 1918.
  • The Spartacist revolt took place in Berlin from January 4-15, 1919. It was suppressed by the army and Freikorps with Ebert’s full support. Over 100 workers were killed.
  • Left wing parties were bitterly divided over Ebert’s actions. The KPD never forgave the SPD. The USPD split: some joined the KPD, others the SPD.
• January 1919 elections

  • In January 1919 there were elections for the German Constituent Assembly.
  • The KPD boycotted them. Political parties that later voted for the constitution won 77% of the vote: the SPD had 38%, the Z and BVP 20%, the DDP 19%.
• Länder and the Reichsrat

  • Germany was a federal state. The Länder (local states e.g. Bavaria) ran major services like education and the police.
  • All state monarchs were replaced in November 1918.
  • In an emergency, the federal (national) government could intervene in the Länder.
  • The Reichsrat was the second chamber of the federal government. There were 67 members from 17 Länder.
  • The Reichsrat could advise the Reichstag and reject new laws but could be overruled by the Reichstag.
• The Reichstag

  • The constitution established a democratic, parliamentary republic in which everyone 20 or older voted every four years for a new parliament, and every seven for a president.
  • Proportional Representation encouraged political participation by giving influence to minority views.
  • A coalition government was the usual outcome.
  • Changes of government happened more than every four years and so did elections. A change of government didn’t necessarily mean an election.
• The president

  • The president was elected every seven years by a popular vote.
  • Presidential powers included: appointing or dismissing the chancellor; dissolving the Reichstag, calling for new elections and commanding the army.
  • Article 48 of the Constitution was significant. In emergencies, Article 48 was invoked to allow the president to rule by decree.
  • The Reichstag had to be informed of all measures the president took under Article 48 and could revoke them.
• The Chancellor

  • The Chancellor was the party leader who could persuade other political parties to work with them. This involved a lot of compromise and deals could break down.
• Strengths of the Weimar Constitution

  • The strengths of the constitution included:
  • It was highly democratic.
  • No one party could dominate without over 50% of the vote.
  • More people’s interests were reflected in government. The president’s emergency powers could be checked by the Reichstag.
• Weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution

  • Weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution included:
  • Germany had no experience of this level of democracy.
  • Coalitions gave minority parties the balance of power: it needed the traditional élites and imperial civil service who tended not to support the Weimar Republic
• Germany's expectations, and the reality of, the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 were very different. Germany did not have a voice at the conference.

  Expectations of the Paris Peace Conference

  • Germany had expected to negotiate a peace based on Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points.
  • Wilson’s key ideas were: self-determination; free trade; a general reduction in armaments; and a new international body, the League of Nations, to settle disputes; and ensure peace through collective security.
• The 'Big Four'

  • The 'Big Four' (Britain, France, Italy, USA) met in January 1919. France, Britain and Italy carried most weight because they had been damaged most, especially France.
  • France had been attacked by Germany twice (1871 and 1914) and wanted it permanently weakened to ensure French national security.
• November Criminals

  • The German delegates arrived in Paris in April expecting to negotiate, but found they had observer status only.
  • By April 1919, Germany’s army had been demobilised. Britain’s navy was still blockading its ports while French and Belgian troops were poised on its border.
  • In May 1919, Germany was presented with a list of non-negotiable demands.
  • The new German government signed The Treaty of Versailles. German opinion called it a Diktat and branded those who signed it as ‘November Criminals.’
• The main aspects of the Treaty of Versailles were territorial issues, demilitarisation, reparations and war guilt.

  The War Guilt Clause

  • Article 231 – the ‘War Guilt Clause’ – made Germany accept responsibility for starting the war and so all the losses that resulted.
  • Article 231 led to Germany paying reparations. A commission decided the amount. These were set in April 1921 at £6.6 billion (132 billion gold marks).
• Territorial issues for Germany

  • Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France.
  • Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium.
  • The coal-rich Saarland was given to France for 15 years. There would then be a plebiscite to determine its future.
  • Poland got Poznań and West Prussia, separating East Prussia from Germany. The port of Danzig became a ‘free city’ under League of Nations control.
  • Czechoslovakia was given the Sudetenland.
  • Control of Germany’s overseas colonies was given mainly to Britain and France.
  • Anschluss (unification) with Austria was forbidden.
• Demilitarisation

  • Germany’s army was cut to 100,000 troops and conscription was banned.
  • There were to be no tanks, military aircraft, submarines or vessels over 10,000 tons.
  • The Rhineland was demilitarised. Allied troops occupied its west bank and would stay there for 15 years.
• Impact of World War One

  • Dead: 1.3 million in France; one million in Britain; two million in Germany
  • The war dead left widows and orphans to be cared for.
  • Wounded: four million in France; two million in Britain; 6.3 million in Germany.
  • In France, 300,000 buildings and 21,000 square km of farmland was destroyed. The war was not fought on British or German soil, so such damage was small.
  • Belgium’s economic losses were so large that it needed a hefty loan from the Allies to repair the damage done to its economy and infrastructure.
• Would Germany have been less harsh?

  • Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg issued a memo on 9 September 1914 that detailed the annexation of French and Belgian territory to Germany as a war aim.
  • The Bethmann-Hollweg memo also said that Germany was aiming for: ‘A commercial treaty that makes France economically dependent on Germany'.
• French attitudes

  • 1914 was the second time in living memory that Germany had invaded France.
  • France wanted both compensation for what had happened and to make sure that it would not happen again. So Germany needed to be weakened
• British attitudes

  • Lloyd-George did not want too harsh a treaty on Germany because it was an important trading partner for Britain.
  • But the public mood was very anti-German. ‘Hang the Kaiser’ and ‘Make Germany Pay’ were popular slogans.
  • Lloyd-George was facing re-re-election in the UK in December and had to pay heed to popular opinion.
• Impact of Versailles on Germany

  • Versailles damaged national pride and reduced the size of Germany and its army. The war guilt clause and reparations bill were deeply resented.
  • Although you could argue that Treaty damaged Germany economically, it was a source of anger and propaganda for German nationalists.
  • 7 million Germans found themselves living as minorities in other countries.
  • The new Weimar Republic was associated with signing it, as well as being blamed for the defeat by the army’s stab-in-the-back myth.
• The German economy had been drained by the First World War and also the Treaty of Versailles.

  Impact of shortages

  • The winter of 1918-1919 was harsh and the British blockade of German ports continued into 1919.
  • Food shortages led to price rises.
  • Rising prices led to an increase in poverty.
  • Anger at profiteering grew.
  • The influenza epidemic caused greater casualties than the war and was worsened by malnourishment and low standards of living.
  • There were food shortages again in 1923 because of the Ruhr crisis
• The loss of territories

  • The loss of territories, such as the Saarland, under the Treaty of Versailles had led to a reduction in raw materials and markets for German goods.
• Demobilising the economy

  • Adjusting from a wartime to a peacetime economy took time. Some companies (e.g. Krupp) had moved over to arms and munitions supply.
  • Economic capacity had been worn down by the war effort and investment was needed to rebuild it.
• Government debt

  • The German government was already in debt because of war expenditure. It soon exhausted its already low gold reserves.
  • The government had to buy goods and raw materials to meet reparations payments. The government printed money to meet its expenditures.
• Government expenditure

  • Expenditure was rising because the Weimar Republic brought in welfare benefits and had to pay widows’ and veterans’ pensions and compensate war victims.
  • It also paid compensation to people who lost land under Versailles and gave cheap loans and subsidies to help industry.
• Inflation

  • Printing more money without economic growth leads to inflation. The currency loses value, so more money is demanded for goods by suppliers and shops.
  • Marks were soon losing value quickly. In January 1918, there were 8.9 marks to $1. In January 1920, there were 14; in January 1921, there were 64.9.
  • The fall in the value of marks accelerated in 1922. In January 1922, there were 191.8 marks to $1. In January 1923, there were 17, 792 marks to $1.
  • The German government fell behind with reparation payments
• The sum of reparations

  • The sum was fixed in 1921 at £6.6 billion. Payments were to be made in gold or in kind (goods, raw materials).
• Inflation escalated in Germany to uncontrollable hyperinflation in 1923. By autumn, prices were rising daily or hourly.

  Impact of the French occupation of the Ruhr

  • As Germany fell behind its reparation payments, France invaded the Ruhr (an industrial region in Germany).
  • The German government ordered the workers to stop working (passive resistance).
  • The government still had to pay unemployment and welfare benefits, but with no income from the Ruhr, hyperinflation simply got worse.
• Stabilising German currency

  • Stresemann called off passive resistance in September. This was important. The German economy needed to be productive if a new currency were to work.
  • The new currency was the Rentenmark. It was introduced in November 1923.
  • 1 trillion marks were swapped for 1 Rentenmark. As people had confidence in the new currency, it was readily accepted.
  • Hyperinflation was ended. But the memory of it haunted the Weimar Republic.