fertility

• Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

  Average number of children women will have during their fertile years
• Birth rates in the UK have dropped
• Birth rates have dropped since the 60s
• Fewer women are having children than in the past
• Remaining childless

  • 1 in 5 women will choose to remain childless
• Childlessness

  • In 2000, 1 in 5 women aged 40 had not had children; this was 1 in 10 in 1980
• Those who have children, have fewer
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in 2021

  1.61 children per woman
• Younger age groups

  Saw declining fertility rates
• Older age groups

  Saw fertility rates increase
• Reasons for changing fertility


  • Changes in the position of women
  • Growth of feminism and the progression of women's rights
  • Education of women
• Anthony Giddens and Ulrich Beck


  Most important factor explaining the decline in the birth rate
• Sarah Harper


  Education of women is most important reason for the fall in birth and fertility rates
• Empowerment of women


  1. Women given legal ability to vote

  2. Women demanding more rights

  3. Growth of feminism

  4. Women afforded increased educational opportunities

  5. Female students doing better at school than boys
• Laws aimed at reducing inequality

  • 1970 Equal Pay Act
  • 1975 Sex Discrimination Act
  • 2006 Equality Act
• Lewis


  Government and EU policies aimed at encouraging women, especially with children, into the workforce
• Women see other possibilities in life

  Women no longer prioritise marriage and children
• Wilkinson


  There has been a 'genderquake' as women no longer prioritise marriage and children
• Sharpe's research


  Women are prioritising education and careers, leading to delay in having children/having children at all, thus leading to the decline of the fertility rate
• Advances in Medical Technology

  • Less stigma attached to taking contraception due to secularisation
  • Pill became widely available
  • Growing variety of contraceptive methods
• Giddens


  Contraception separates sex from reproduction, referred to as 'plastic sexuality'
• Hakim


  Contraception is now allowing women to be child free as a lifestyle choice
• Ability of women to control their fertility

  Led to change in attitudes of women and gave greater independence to control their lives
• Abortion Act 1967


  1. Legalised abortion in UK except NI

  2. Specific criteria had to be met

  3. Abortion decriminalised in NI in 2019
• IVF


  • Enables childless people to have children
  • Enables women to have children at a later age
  • Some companies offer IVF as a job perk to encourage women to focus on their careers
• Individualisation, Increased Choice & Decline in Stigma

  • Postmodern families characterized by individualism and choice
  • Women can often prioritise their own opportunities and self-interests over children
  • Less stigma attached to women choosing to remain childless
• Economical & Child-Centeredness


  • Until late 19th century, children were economic assets
  • Now children are an economic liability due to laws banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling and raising school leaving age
  • Economic crisis in 2008 forced Europeans under 25 to refrain and/or delay having children
• Reasons for changing in fertility 

  Changes in the position of women

  Advances in Medical Technology 

   Individualisation, Increased Choice & Decline in Stigma 

   Economical & Child-Centeredness 
• Reasons for changing in fertility 

  • changing position of women Advances in medical technology Rise of individualism and decline of stigma Economic and child centeredness
• changing positions of women

  •  growth of feminism and the progression of  rights. 
  • Been a number of laws eg  Legislation-1970 Equal Pay Act, 1975 Sex Discrimination Act and the 2006 Equality Act,  Lewis - have been government and EU policies aimed at encouraging women, especially with children, into the workforce. 
  • Women now see other possibilities in life apart from the traditional expressive role Wilkinson-has been a 'genderquake' as women no longer prioritise marriage and children.
• Advances in Medical Technology 

  • less stigma attached to taking contraception due to secularisation.-
  • Health of women and children also improved. ability of women to control their fertility led to change in attitudes of women and gave greater independence to control their lives.
  •  Abortion Act 1967 legalised abortion in uk except NI safe abortion allows women to control their fertility and delay having children/having children at all etc. 
  • IVF - enables childless people to have children , have kids older and focus on career etc 
• Individualisation, Increased Choice & Decline in Stigma 

  • Families now - individualism and choice-seeking  own opportunities and self interests. Women expect more than domestic work and childbirth. increased desire for material possessions and less desire for large families. Due to growing individualisation, there is less stigma attached to women choosing remaining childless which is often referred to as 'child free' instead of 'child less'. 
• Economical & Child-Centeredness 


  • Kids were economic assets but now are an economic liability: Laws -banned child labour, introduced compulsory schooling and raised school leaving age meaning kids remain economically dependent on  parents for longer 
  • Prices of weddings, buying homes and the cost of living is very expensive.-refrain and/or delay having children in the face of rising unemployment and uncertainty.