Memory

• memory

  the means by which the mind stores and retrieves information and events experienced.
• multi store model

  an explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems.

  this was devised by Atkinson and Shiffrin. it was the first cognitive explanation of memory. the model explains how information flows through a series of storage systems.

  
• coding

  capacity

  duration

  coding= this means by which information is represented in memory

  capacity= the amount of information that can be stored at a given time

  duration= the length of time information remains within storage
• sensory register

  a short duration store holding impressions of information received by the senses.

  this is not under cognitive control but is an automatic response to the reception of sensory information.
• sensory register-

  coding,capacity and duration

  coding= raw and unprocessed, different stores for visual and auditory information

  capacity= capacity in each sensory memory store is very large with the information being unprocessed.

  duration= this has limited duration as different information decay at different rates
• short term memory-

  a temporary store holding small amounts of information for brief periods
• short term memory-

  coding, capacity and duration

  coding= arrives from the SR in a raw form such as in sound or vision. then its encoded in a form of STM

  visually-thinking of the image

  acoustically-repeatedly saying a word

  semantically- using knowledge of the word

  capacity= limited capacity as only small amounts of information is held in the store e.g five to nine items

  duration= this is limited to around a maximum of 30 seconds but can be extended by rehearsal which if its done long enough it will be transfered in the long term memory
• long term memory

  a permanent store holding limitless amounts of information for long periods
• long term memory

  coding, capacity and duration

  coding= the way the information is shaped into representation of memories coding is mainly semantic

  capacity= this is unlimited it may be lost due to decay and interference.

  duration= depends on the individuals lifespan as they can last a life time
• multi store model memory research- Peterson and Peterson

  peterson and peterson 1959- read nonsense trigrams (words of three letters that don't form recognisable words e.g ZFB) to participants then got them to count backwards three times from a large three digit number for varying periods of time. only 90% of trigrams were recalled correctly after 3 seconds, only 5% after 18 seconds suggesting STM has a capacity of 20-30 seconds.
• multi store model evaluation

  - tasks used to research the multi store model had low ecological validity e.g perterson and peterson the tasks for not natural as the random words recalled aren't recalled on a day to day basis so they aren't applicable to real life meaning the results aren't as reliable.

  -too simplistic as a explanation as it lacks detail making it less reliable but

  +first cognitive explanation for memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin forming the start of memory research so detail was added on in the future
• working memory model

  an explanation that sees short term memory as an active store holding several pieces of information simultaneously

  
• the central executive

  component of the WMM that oversees and co-ordinates the components of the working memory.
• phonological loop

  component of the WMM that deals with auditory information
• visuo-spatial sketchpad

  component of the WMM that deals with visual information and the physical relationship of items
• episodic buffer

  component of the WMM that serves as a temporary store of integrated information from the central executive , phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and LTM
• Working memory model evaluation- desposito

  +desposito used Fmri (funcitonal magnetic resonance imaging) on participants while they completed spatial and visual tasks at the same time and separelty this shown the prefrontal cortex to be activated when completing it at the same time only. showing a link with the central executive showing high construct validity

  - most studies used lab experiments e.g despositio showing low ecological validity so it cant be thought about it real life situations

  -central executive isnt fully understood yet meaning it has a lack of detail so it is less reliable
• types of long term memory

  (explicit- conscious)

  episodic memory

  this memory is for events and past expirences such as there birthdays. the higher the emotional impact the more likley the memory will be remembered. the hippocampus is important with the episodic memory as if it is damaged these new memories wont be formed. this was the first memory suggested by endel tulving.
• types of long term memory

  (explicit- conscious)

  semantic memory

  semantic memory is for meanings, understanding and knowledge of the world such as facts. these memories can start as episodic memories then turn into semantic memories as the knowledge learnt is accquired through personal expirences.
• types of long term memory

  (implicit- unconcious)

  procedural memory

  procedural memory is for performance of particular types of action such as riding a bike. this is occured through practise and repitition during everyday life. through the procedural memory there is no use of the hippocampus and there is no concious thought.
• types of long term memory research- Clive wearing and tulvling

  clive wearing was a muscian and a virus attacked his central nervous system causing brain damage this impacted his ability to form memories. he soon forgot his children's names and he was unable to form and store new memories it was estimated that he could hold information for 30 seconds.

  tuvling- got participants to perform tasks during a brain scan showing the frontal cortex deals with semantic and episodic memory this shows physical scientific evidence with the LTM
• types of long term memory- evaluation

  + brain scans support LTM stores shown in tulving study with the performed tasks and the brain scans showing the frontal cortex deals with semantic and episodic memory this shows high construct validity.

  - most research is based of brain damage case studies e.g clive wearing meaning it makes it ungenerisable to people who dont have brain damage

  + scientfic as it can be proven falsaflibale it is objective and its reliable meaning due to the high use of scientific equipment results are more reliable.
• explanations for forgetting

  this is a failure to retrieve memories due to retrieval failure and interference.
• interference

  an explanation for forgetting when similar material is confused in recall from the long term memory.
• pro-active interference

  a form of interference that occurs when information stored previously interferes with an attempt to recall something new foe example the memory of a old phone number disrupts the ability to learn a new phone number

  pro=old, retro=new
• retro-active interference

  a form of interference that occurs when coding new information disrupts information stored previously for example the memory of a new car registration number prevents recall of old car registration number.
• interference research- Mc Geoch and Mc Donald

  McGeoch and McDonald

  studied retro-active interference . participants had to learn a list of words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy . then they learned a new list of words. there were 6 groups for example one group would learn synonyms then another would learn 3 dight numbers. when participants recalled the first list their performance depended on the similarity of the second list. the most similar materials produced the worst recall showing interference.
• interference evaluation-

  - may be individual differences in pro-active interference shown in McGeoch and McDonalds study as some people may have better memory then others also numbers can be easier to remember showing low validity

  +high reliability shown in studies McGeoch and McDonalds study was a lab studies meaning study can be repeated showing high test retest reliability.

  +high construct validity from McGeoch and McDonald as it proved how interference worked with results.
• retrieval failure

  involves cue-dependent forgetting a reason we forget is due to insufficient cues as when we encode memories we store the information around it. so we cant remember due to recall being done in a different environment.
• context-dependent failure

  a form of cue dependent forgetting where recall occurs in a different external setting to when coding took place. for example getting less marks on a test when sat in the test room instead of the class room as your not familiar with the environment
• state dependent failure

  a form of cue-dependent forgetting where recall occurs in a different internal setting to when coding took place. for example trying to recall information learned sober when you are drunk
• cue dependent forgetting research- Godden and Baddeley

  Godden and Baddeley- study on deep sea divers underwater (a life or death situation) where the divers have to remember instructions. they have learned a list of words either underwater or on land then were asked to recalled the list of words on land or underwater. when the conditions matched and the others didn't accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching conditions.. when external cues are the same there was accurate recall.
• cue dependent evalaution

  +Godden and Baddeley high construct validity with the study on deep sea divers

  -most research done in labs so they may not relate to real life situations and some memories aren't dependent on cues e.g. procedural memory

  - social desirability bias the recall cant be seen so the participants have to speak about here recall of memory so they may lie saying the don't remember to fit the experiment
• eye witness testimony

  where evidence is provided by those recalling an event who were present when the event took place.
• accuracy of eyewitness testimony- misleading information

  information that suggests a desired response. this can be in the form of leading questions and post event discussion. misleading information has been found to create false memories that are believable.
• leading questions

  questions that prompt or encourage required response. this increases thee likelihood that an individuals schemas will influence them to give the desired answers.
• post-event discussion

  information added to a memory after the event has occurred. memories can be stimulated by post event experiences
• accuracy of EWT research- loftus and palmer

  completed two experiments-

  in experiment one 45 students were put into 5 different groups of 9. participants were shown 7 clips of car accidents between 5-30 seconds. after each clip the participants were given a questionnaire . for one clip a question was 'about how fast were the cars going when they ... into each other' the verb in the question changed for each group (smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted)

  results shown that the verb smashed produced the highest mean estimate of speed and the verb contacted produced the lowest. use of leading question
• accuracy of eye witness testimony evaluation

  + loftus and palmer high construct validity

  + research has real life application e.g. loftus and palmer this can be used in police interviews to help stop crimes

  - lots of lab studies involved e.g. loftus and palmer so there is a high chance of demand characteristics
• anxiety

  an unpleasant emotional state where we fear that something bad is about to happen. anxiety during a crime can greatly affect recall with EWT