history paper 1

• Methods used to reduce the risk of trench foot on the Western Front


  • Medical officers sent orders to all orders stating that every man should change socks twice a day and rub whale oil into feet to reduce the risk of trench foot
  • Mechanical pumps were sent to the front to reduce waterlogging in the trenches. To prevent soldiers feet being constantly wet
  • Rubber waders. High rubber wadders were issued to soldiers in extreme conditions like deep mud to prevent their feet from constanly being wet
• Methods of warfare used on the Western Front


  • Chemical warfare was used. The use of gas attacks using chlorine,phosgene and mustard gas was used. This caused great panic and fear and killed 6,000 british soldiers and caused several injuries, blindness and repiratory issues
  • Trench warfare was used. Soldiers dug trenches in zig zag formation to keep enermy from firing down in a straight line and kill many soldiers
• Conditions in which fighting took place in the Battle of Ypres

  • Overlooked by Hill 60 which meant enemy bombardments upon the town were relentless and resulted in extremely poor conditions as they had an advantage point by being elevated cause they held the high ground
  • Germans held the high ground. This meant that their trenches had better drainage, whereas the British trenches got waterlogged so the British soldiers were less healthy
  • Chlorine gas was used for the first time in the 2nd battle of ypres against the biriths. Thousands died and many went blind causing panic
• Methods used to reduce the risk of trench fever

  • Hygiene protocols in living quarters and trenches were put in place to minimize the spread of lice
  • Delousing stations were set up to disinfect soldiers' clothing and bedding using chemicals like benzene or steam
  • Bathhouses were built for men to use. They were issued with lice-repellent gel and other chemicals to put on their clothes
• Trench conditions that led to illness among soldiers

  • The waterlogged conditions lead to trench foot. Standing in the deep muddy water left men's feet swollen and blistered causing trench food and soon after gangrene
  • Trenches were often wet and muddy because there was little protection from the rain. These damp conditions led to around 20000 British Army soldiers getting trench foot
  • The cramped conditions increased the risk of trench fever. Trench fever was caused by the lice in the soldiers clothing so the cramped conditions helped spread the illnesses
  • Very crowded and it was hard for soldiers to wash. This meant that lice could easily spread trench fever from person to person, which made men unfit for fighting
• Weapons used on the Western Front that caused severe wounds to soldiers

  • The gas. Gas was fast acting and caused severe internal and external damage like blisters and burns to the the skin. Also long term effects like blindness
  • Artillery shells removed limbs or inflicted major internal damage to the body and head, often causing rapid blood loss
  • The 'blast impact' from bullets, shrapnel and shells. These objects first hit bones, muscle or organs but set off a blast effect which destroyed or damaged tissue and even bone for inches
• Work of nursing units such as the FANY


  • It provided front line support for the medical services by driving ambulances and engaging in emergency first aid
  • They drove supplies such as food and clothes to the front line
  • The FANY had 500 members working as ambulance drivers and nurses. For example, one FANY unit ran the ambulance convoy at Calais for two years with 22 drivers and 12 ambulances
  • All members were women. This meant that they worked for the Belgian army until 1916 because the British army wouldn't recruit them until later because they were women
• Methods of transporting the wounded on the Western Front

  • The soldiers carrying wounded on stretchers. 4-6 soldiers carried one woinded man from no mans land through the trenches
  • X-ray machines were made available to soldiers close to the front line via mobile X-ray units. These enabled bullets or shrapnel fragments to be located early
  • Blood transfusions became available due to blood groups being discovered and this enabled severe blood loss to be treated
  • Horse drawn wagons were used before motorised ambulances. This was a problem because horse drawn ambulances couldn't cope with the large number of casulties and soldiers were often shaken about, making their injuries worse. Motorised ambulances were used after 1914. For example, the Times' newspaper campaign of October 1914 funded 512 motorised ambulances
• Regimental Aid Posts

  • The Regimental aid post was close to the front line (200m) in a dugout or behind a wall, stretcher bearers would carry injured men
  • The purpose was to give immediate first aid and get as many men back to the fighting as soon as possible
  • That they were close to the frontline. This increased the amount of soldiers they needed to tend to and they had to relocate many times due to dangerous conditions
  • They helepd wounded. Their main job was to distinguish between the ligly wounded and those who need more advanced medical care and sent them away
• Casualty Clearing Stations


  • Casualty clearing stations were located a sufficient distance away from the front line to provide safety against attack. Focused on operating on the most critical injuries, such as those to the chest
  • They were set up in buildings such as factories or schools and were often located near to the railway line to allow them to get in and out easily
  • That they were well equipt and large. For example they could perform operations and amputations
  • They were far away from frontline. This meant only soldiers who had chance of surviving the transport to the station would be taken there by horse-drwan or motor ambulances
• New surgical approaches on the Western Front

  • Chemicals such as carbolic acid and hydrogen were used to kill bacteria in soldiers wounds and tubes were used to provided constant irrigation (water flow) throughout the wound
  • Developments to deal with deeper wounds focused upon cutting away tissue around the wound keeping wounds open to apply antiseptics
• New equipment used in surgery on the Western Front

  • When solders had very horrific head or facial injuries doctors used plastic surgery to fix the face and mend the skull
  • Portable x-rays introduced for on-site diagnosis of injuries and fractures and allowed surgeons to quickly assess the extent of internal damage
• Aseptic surgery


  • Steam sterilisation was used (1); the autoclave destroyed bacteria on equipment, making it sterile and able to be used in surgery (1)
  • From 1890, rubber gloves were worn (1); this prevented bacteria from being transferred into a patient's wound (1)
• Antiseptic surgery


  • The all surgical instruments were steam sterilized by 1887 This killed all bacteria and allowed antiseptic surgery increasing treatment and decreasing infection
  • Suregons were required to wash their hands thoroughly with antiseptic solutions before and after surgeries – minimised bacteris transfer
• Stretcher bearers roles on the western front

  • The soldiers carrying wounded on stretchers. There would be 16 stretcher bearers per battalion and worked at night or during breaks in fighting
  • 4-6 soldiers carried one wounded man from no mans land through the trenches and would carry basic medical supplies such as bandages
• Chain of evacuation


  • The regimental aid post was close to the front of the line were an officer was delivered by stretcher-bearers to deliver first aid
  • Casualty clearing stations were better equipped, several miles from the front line and prioritised treating life-threatening illnesses
• Blood transfusions


  • Landsteiner discovered blood groups in 1901. This meant that blood transfusions were possible, so patients no longer died of blood loss
  • Adding sodium citrate allowed blood to be stored for longer in glass bottles so that meant a patient didn't have to wait for a live blood transfusion
• Methods used to fight infection

  • Chemicals such as carbolic acid and hydrogen were used to kill bacteria in soldiers wounds and tubes were used to provided constant irrigation (water flow) throughout the wound
  • Developments to deal with deeper wounds focused upon cutting away tissue around the wound keeping wounds open to apply antiseptics
• Thomas Splint


  • To reduce amputation. It would pull the length ways to stop the bones rubbing against each other decreasing the pain and risk of amputation
  • To reduce bloodloss. Similarly the pulling of the leg helped reduce the bloodloss therefore increasing chance of treatment
  • The splint reduced the death rate for wounds from broken legs from 80% to 20% and resulted in far fewer amputations from December 1915 when the splint was first introduced
• Battle of Ypres


  • Firstly, the British tunnelled into and under the hill, exploding five mines from tunnels enabling them to take the hill
  • Secondly, the first use of chlorine gas, firstly by the Germans which irritates the lungs, eyes and nose immediately
• Plastic surgery on the front line

  • Firstly, Harold Gillies developed the tube pedicle to help make skin grafts more successful, helping improve blood supply to the new skin
  • 1,000 plastic surgeries were carried out. For example a new technique known as 'Skin Grafts' became a popular and safe for soilders suffering from facial disfiguration
  • Secondly, Francis Derwent Wood helped develop life like masks, portrait masks, helping soldiers deal with the mental trauma of their facial injuries
• Brain surgery


  • It depended upon other developments occurring first. Blood transfusions needed to be administered before surgery could be carried out to stop the body going into shock
  • A second key feature of brain surgery on the Western Front is that it developed rapidly in a very short amount of time. Harvey Cushing developed a surgical magnet that allowed for quicker and easier extraction of metal
• Terrain on the western front

  • That the ground was difficult to traverse. For example, due to the shelling and very high rainfall it meant that no mans land and the trenches were deep in liquid mud making it difficult for soldiers to move
  • That the trenches were zigzagged and water logged. The cramped trenches became water logged from the rainfall and shelling which made it difficult for the stretcher bearers and soldies whos equipment ended up all other the place
• Reasons why wounded soldiers on the western front were likely to develop life-threating infections

  • The farmland. The french farmland which the soldiers were fighting on was full of manure, increasing the risk and severity of infections
  • The care. The removal of shrapnel was based around removing as much of it as possible, cleaning the wound and leaving it open- increasing infection
• Conditions at the Battle of cambrai

  • Experienced the first large scale tank attacks, where 450 were used against the German front line
  • Tanks could not prove effective as they were not supported effectively by infantry and could not hold ground captured
• Trench system on the Western Front

  • One feature of the trench system on the Western Front is the frontline trench. This was the most advanced position where attacks would be made from Soldiers spent 15% of time here
  • Another feature of the trench system was communication trenches. They linked the firing line with the command support and reserve trenches
  • Firstly, the frontline trench was were attacks were launched and the they support trench was were troops would retreat to from the frontline.Secondly, the reserve trench was where troops could be stationed for counter attack and there were dugouts, holes in the side of the trench for troops to take cover
• Methods used to reduce the risk of shell shock

  • They where given rest, food and talks to calm them down and they kept in touch with there friends in the unit
  • Orders were sent to medical officers that the words 'shell shock' we're not to be used in the records and replaced with NYD.N
• Dangers of artillery


  • Artillery shells removed limbs or inflicted major internal damage to the body and head, often causing rapid blood loss
  • The 'blast impact' from bullets, shrapnel and shells. These objects first hit bones, muscle or organs but set off a blast effect which destroyed or damaged tissue and even bone for inches
• Methods used to treat severely wounded soldiers


  • X-ray machines were made available to soldiers close to the front line via mobile X-ray units. These enabled bullets or shrapnel fragments to be located early
  • Blood transfusions became available due to blood groups being discovered and this enabled severe blood loss to be treated
• Landsteiner's discoveries about blood

  • Landsteiner discovered blood groups in 1901. This meant that blood transfusions were possible, so patients no longer died of blood loss. This lead to the introduction of the National Blood Transfusion Service in 1938
• Advanced dressing station


  • Firstly, around a mile from the front line in derelict buildings, dugouts and tents, staffed by medical officers, orderlies and stretcher bearers. and some nurses from 1915
  • Secondly, could look after men for a week and sent serious cases straight to the casualty clearing stations
• Base hospital


  • Firstly, situated near ports on the coast with many medical staff, including cities who specialised in certain treatments
  • Secondly, patients could stay for some time before retiring to the front or being sent home by ship for further treatment
• Frontline French


  • Firstly, the frontline trench was where the attacks were launched. They were built in a zig-zag pattern and where linked to the support and reserve trench through communication trenches
  • Secondly, they were built 7 feet wide and 6 feet deep, allowing dugouts to be built inside the trenches (holes in the walls allowing troops to take cover in the frontline trench)
• Trench construction


  • Firstly, the first trenches were hurriedly dug by troops and often used existing ditches or banks to make it easier
  • Secondly, the trenches were constantly maintained and improved, for example with drains and steps added
• Warfare on the western front

  • Firstly, french warfare, when armies of millions of men faced each other in a line of trenches using tactics such as creeping barrage
  • Secondly, new technologies such as aircraft, sound ranging and flash spotting to locate and neutralise enemy artillery
• Frontline trench


  • 7 feet wide and 6 feet deep
  • Allowed dugouts to be built inside the trenches (holes in the walls allowing troops to take cover)
• Trench construction


  1. First trenches were hurriedly dug by troops

  2. Used existing ditches or banks to make it easier

  3. Constantly maintained and improved, for example with drains and steps added
• Transportation of casualties


  1. Difficult terrain and destruction of roads and railway lines meant only stretcher-bearers and horse wagons could be used

  2. Constant shelling and artillery fire made recovery of the injured very difficult and this was not helped by the lack of motor ambulances and enough horses
• Underground hospital at Arras

  • Known as Thompson's cave and was very close to the front line in the tunnels underneath the town
  • Included space for 700 beds, an operating theater and a mortuary, as well as being supplied with running water and electricity
• Battle of Arras


  • The British linked and expanded underground tunnels, quarries and caves for the shelter and movement of troops
  • The British lost about 159,000 killed, wounded and missing