itp module 8

• Motivation


  A need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal. It is what either starts or stops behavior. It is the internal and external forces that drive our thoughts, moods, and behaviors.
• Extrinsic Motivation


  Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person. Example: Going to work for money.
• Intrinsic Motivation


  Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner. Example: Creating a web site for fun.
• Different theories on motivation

  • Instinct theory
  • Drive Theory
  • Incentive theory
• Instinct theory


  • Organisms are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of their genetic programming and because these behaviors lead to success in terms of natural selection. Example: Pursuing sex to reproduce and propagate the human species.
• Instinctual behaviors

  • Reproduction and social dominance
  • Territorial behavior
  • Mating dances and nest building sequences
• Drive theory


  • Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. The brain makes sure the body is kept in balance (body temperature, fluid levels, energy supplies, need for rest). This balance or optimal state is called homeostasis.
• Incentive theory


  Behavior is motivated by the pull of external (outside) goals such as rewards.
• Not all human behavior has a direct reward attached to it. Some people are motivated to achieve just for the sake of achieving or do things for fun or personal growth.
• Types of motives

  • Primary Motives
  • Stimulus Motives
  • Secondary Motives
• Primary Motives


  Based on biological needs that must be met for survival. They are innate like hunger, thirst, pain avoidance, needs for air, sleep, elimination of wastes, and regulation of body temperature.
• Extracellular Thirst


  When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body
• Intracellular Thirst


  When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell
• Pain Avoidance


  An episodic drive, distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur
• Sex Drive


  Estrus: Changes in animals that create a desire for sex; females in heat. Estrogen: A female sex hormone. Androgens: Male hormones.
• Sex Disorders

  • Gender Identity Disorders
  • Sexual Dysfunction
  • Paraphilia
• Gender Identity Disorder


  When the person's sense of identity (male vs. female) is inconsistent with who they are physically. Has also been referred

  to as transexualism. Not the same as being gay or intersex.
• Paraphilias


  • Fetishism
  • Voyeurism/Exhibitionism
  • Transvestic Fetishism
  • Sexual Sadism and Sexual Masochism
  • Sadistic Rape
  • Pedophilia and Incest
  • Zoophilia
  • Frotteurism
  • Necrophilia
• Stimulus Motives


  Like primary drives, they are largely unlearned. They place a premium on obtaining information about the environment and depend more on external stimuli than on internal states. Examples: Exploration, Curiosity, Manipulation, Contact.
• Sensation Seeking


  A trait of people who prefer high levels of stimulation. High sensation seekers tend to be independent, bold, and value change. Low sensation seekers are orderly, nurturant, and enjoy company of others.
• Secondary Motives


  Based on learned needs, drives, and goals. They help explain many human activities like making music, creating a web page, trying to win a skateboarding contest or American Idol. They are related to learned needs for POWER, AFFILIATION, intimacy, approval, status, security, and achievement.
• Need for Achievement Motivation


  Motivation is a habitual desire to achieve goals through one's efforts. The desire to excel or meet some internalized standard of excellence.
• Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs


  • Maslow believed that people strive for a positive view of the self to realize their own potentials fully. He believed these needs were innate but without a supportive, nurturing environment, this essential striving for full potential could not take place.
• Emotion


  A complex state which results in alteration of feelings, both psychological and physical. Emotion is defined as a state characterized by physiological arousal, changes in facial expression, gestures, posture and subjective feelings.
• Eight Primary Emotions


  • Fear
  • Surprise
  • Sadness
  • Disgust
  • Anger
  • Anticipation
  • Happy
  • Trust
• Basic facial expressions seem to be fairly universal, even in children born blind.
• Evolutionary Theory of Emotions


  • Emotions evolved due to adaptability allowing human beings and animals to survive and reproduce. The ultimate purpose of emotions is to motivate human beings to respond quickly to stimuli in the environment.
• Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotions


  • The sequence goes: Stimulus - thought - the simultaneous experience of response - emotion. This learning is built on Schacter-Singer's theory.
• Facial Feedback Hypothesis


  • Facial expressions can actually cause emotion. Changes in heart rate and skin temperature. Smiling when you're down may help improve mood but it's important to deal with your emotions constructively.
• James-Lange's Vision of Emotions

  • Sentiments are a result of physiological reactions to certain occasions.
• Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion


  • Individuals can experience physiological responses related to emotions without even feeling them. We experience physiological reactions and feel emotions at the same time.
• Drive Theory


  This perspective views behavior as motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs
• Anorexia Nervosa


  Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins.
• Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge Syndrome)


  Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives
• Fetishism


  sexual attraction to nonliving objects, i.e.,shoes and undergarments
• Voyeurism 


  involves observing individuals in a state of undress without their knowledge (peeping)
• Exhibitionism


  involves exposing oneself to strangers has a thrill-seeking component.
• Transvestism 


  sexual excitement is related to the act of cross-dressing
• Sexual Sadism


  involves sexual excitement when hurting others
• Sexual masochism


  involves sexual excitement when one is being inflicted with pain