CPSY 3301 final exam :)

• What are the major characteristics of preoperational thought, according to Piaget? What are the limitations? You should be able to recognize/describe the tasks Piaget used to test the limitations of preoperational thought.


  Developing theory of mind: ability to reason about the mental states of other people

  
  

  Improving executive function: (cognitive self regulation) gradually improving the ability to control attention and inhibit responses

  
  

  Development of representational thought: delayed imitation, anticipation in problem solving, pretend play, language

  
  

  Symbolic reasoning: DeLoache Study, scale model task, picture task

  
  

  Limitations: child is not yet capable of mental representations of actions that obey logical rules, difficulty distinguishing appearance vs reality, egocentrism, false beliefs
• What are some of the problems with the tasks Piaget used to determine the limitations of preoperational thought? How have new & modified tasks revealed preoperational children to be more sophisticated thinkers than Piaget believed? You should be able to recognize/describe the new tasks used to challenge Piaget's conclusions.

  Young children reason at different levels across different domains, children's competencies are underestimated (tasks are too complicated or unfamiliar)

  
  

  New modified tasks show that Piaget's tasks were too complicated for children. New tasks are easier for children to understand

  
  

  Tree conservation of number: children can remember/understand 4 numbers rather than 6-7
• According to the study by DeLoache and colleagues, why does convincing young children that you have actually shrunk a room (compared to showing them a small model of it), make it easier for them to understand the association between the large room and the small version? Describe the research studies that inform us on this topic.

  It is easier because children are able to better understand pictures rather than models. Children have experience with photos instead of models

  
  

  Studies on symbolic reasoning help to inform about this topic
• What is the false belief task, and what does it indicate about children's development? What does autistic children's performance on the false belief task suggest?

  False belief: difficulty with the concept that others can hold false beliefs

  
  

  Task: children are shown a candy box and are told there are pennies in the box. however when asked what someone else would say they say pennies (until they turn about 4-5 years old)

  
  

  autistic children struggle with the false belief task because it is difficult for them to conduct and do pretend play
• How is current thinking on childhood cognitive development different from Piaget's conceptualization of cognitive development?

  Children are better when things are real and present and when scenarios pertain to them, better when familiar objects are used, and better when tasks are presented visually

  
  

  thinking is more sophisticated than originally thought but still have several cognitive limitations, children are underestimated
• Describe evidence supporting an information-processing explanation of preschoolers' cognitive development.

  Young children's cognitive limitations are from lack of knowledge, memory, attentional control, the speed of processing, and strategies for use
• What evidence suggests that young children are more competent at providing eyewitness testimony than was originally thought?

  Studies show that children who suffer trauma and post traumatic stress disorder are able to recall a lot of the trauma. Children often open up to people they feel comfortable around.
• Give examples of privileged domains and briefly describe what they might indicate about children's thinking. How do children acquire privileged domain knowledge?

  privileged domains: cognitive domains that call on specialized kind of information, require specifically designated forms of reasoning, and appear to be of evolutionary importance to the human species.

  
  

  ex) (thought to have naive thinking for all) psychology, biology, physics
• Describe autistic children's reasoning about physical and psychological events. How does a modularity account of development explain these results? What evidence suggests that this view may not be entirely accurate?

  Children who have autism find it very difficult to do well on the false belief tests. They often struggle with imagination or pretend play too when they are given a scenario. Many children however score very high on building tasks such as legos and building blocks.

  
  

  One specific module can be affected such as speech and communication, while the others are not affected (depends on person)

  
  

  Children with autism can also struggle with emotions and showing emotions when talking or thinking about situations.
• What are scripts? Describe way in which cultural context influences children's cognitive development.


  Scripts: a sequence or set of expected behaviors or actions that should happen during a specific event or context.

  
  

  In terms of cultural context influences, they can determine the behaviors or actions that one performs during a specific event or context. This can determine the way that a child thinks about certain topics
• How much television do U.S. children watch, on average, and what is known about the general content of the television programs available for them to watch? Why is it such a large influence on children's development?

  Average: 8.5 hours a day are spent with mass media

  
  

  Young children have unsophisticated viewing skills when it comes to watching television. Watching television at a young age can be linked to aggression in early school years.
• In what ways are media portrayals of violence linked to children's aggressive behavior? Be sure to cite evidence from both correlational studies and experimental studies in your answer.


  Watching more tv as a preschooler can result in more aggression during early school years.

  
  

  -70% of shows contain physical aggression

  -90% of shows contain relational aggression

  -violence on tv is associated with behaving more aggressively

  
  

  -Boys preference for violence at age 8 impacted their aggression at age 20

  -television shows had a much larger percentage of scenes with violence than without

  
  

  Superman vs Rogers: increase in aggressive behavior in the boys who watched superman (but only for those who were also aggressive before)
• Discuss the role of television in perpetuating social stereotypes. Why is stereotyping on television of concern?

  There are numerous gender roles and stereotypes shown in television. For example, one stereotype often seen is the "damsel in distress" where the girl needs saving from a man who is often strong and portrayed as a hero. Stereotypes are concerning because they can influence the way a child thinks about the world and how it is "okay" to act.
• What issues have been raised about children's use of interactive media? In what ways does research support or alleviate concerns in these areas?

  issues include: levels of aggression in children, the way they interact with family, friends, and peers, how it affects their cognitive development

  
  

  Interactive media can positively impact the way children learn to interact with others, especially those that struggle to communicate and interact in public. However it is important to only have a limited amount of media per day, remembering that tech-free zones and playtime
• What is known about television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children? Be sure to describe the findings of Zimmerman & Christakis (2007) in your answer.

  -More tv viewing at 2-3 are associated with higher attention problems at 7

  -Watching more entertainment television prior to 3 is associated with more attention problems
• How is television exposure potentially implicated in the obesity epidemic facing the U.S.?


  Children who watch more television per day are more likely to gain more body fat, which can result in obesity
• How are videogames potentially more influential than television and movies in terms of their effect on child behavior? To date, what do research findings imply about the influence of video games on child behavior?

  Strong influence: more interactive, identify with aggressor, repetition and reward for aggression

  
  

  Violent games linked to: more aggression and delinquency, lower academic achievement

  
  

  Coker study: 5000 5th graders were studied, many played violent video games which was shown to lead to higher levels of behavior problems

  
  

  Anderson study: 350 12-18 year olds who played lots of violent video games predicted later aggression
• How is parental involvement an important factor in media influences on children's functioning? Summarize the AAP's guidelines for parents of young children

  -important for parents to set limits on screen time (2-5 y/o have less than an hour of HIGH quality screentime)

  -playtime is important

  -create tech free zones
• Describe how a preschooler would typically answer the question "who am I." What are the main influences on the development of the self-concept?

  "I am a boy. I am strong. I run fast. I like pizza"

  
  

  -focus on specific and concrete physical and activity based/social traits

  -very overly positive

  
  

  Self concept influences: social interactions (looking-glass self), cognitive changes, unsophisticated memory development, language and memory development
• What do research findings suggest about young children's ethnic stereotypes? How do they develop these beliefs?

  -young children are aware of racial and ethnic groups

  -Clark and Clark: african american children show evidence of pro-white bias (prefer white dolls, point to darker dolls as less desirable)

  -believes and feelings developed from social stereotypes and beliefs

  -children are taught to be prepared for bias and discrimination
• Describe the strategies parents use as they discuss issues of ethnicity with their children. What is the evidence linking these approaches to various child outcomes?

  1. Cultural socialization and ethnic pride (most common)

  2. Preparation for bias and discrimination (2 hands on the steering wheel)

  -Mixed findings, depends on the dynamics of the family
• How have gender stereotypes changed since the 1960's, and what evidence do we have that children know these stereotypes? How does culture influence the development of gender role beliefs?

  Children know stereotypes:

  -sort toys by gender

  -sort occupations by gender

  -prefer same gender playmates

  -rather rigid stereotype behavior

  
  

  Evidence: by 24 months boys prefer vehicle toys more and girls prefer dolls more

  
  

  Culture influences: can impact the types of toys that children choose to play with and how they act
• What gender differences actually exist? How large are these differences, in general?

  Cognitive abilities:

  -verbal ability = higher in girls

  -visual/spatial acuity = higher in boys

  -academic achievement = higher in girls

  
  

  Social behaviors:

  -compliance = higher in girls

  - activity level = higher in boys

  -physical aggression = higher in boys

  -interpreting and expressing emotions = higher in girls

  
  

  Differences are small and there is overlap
• What are the social influences on gender differences? What is known about how parents, teachers, peers, and the media influence the development of gender differences? How do siblings influence gender roles?

  Social learning perspective: modeling and imitation, and differential reinforcement

  
  

  Parents: more likely to encourage girls to express feelings and grant boys autonomy. Believe math and science are more difficult for daughters. Fathers discourage boys from playing with boy toys and encourage them to play rough

  
  

  Teachers: interrupt girls, call on boys, praise boys for knowledge and girls for weakness

  
  

  Peers: self segregate by sex from early age, group norms

  
  

  Media: females are portrayed less frequently, characters are portrayed in gender stereotypical ways
• How do children come to develop a sex-role identity according to psychodynamic view, social learning view, constructivist view, and cultural view?

  Psychodynamic: children first do not parent of same gender but later identify with them

  
  

  Environmental: (unsure) what children see in their environment and how it influences them

  
  

  Social learning: through communication you are able to identify with the people you feel closest or feel the most similar to

  
  

  Constructivist view: working to improve and work on sex-role identity

  
  

  Cultural view: look at what is "correct" or "normal" for the culture and have that as an impact
• Discuss the social domain view of moral development. How does this view differ from the constructivist and psychodynamic views of moral development?

  Social domain view: looking at the differences between types of rights and wrongs

  
  

  This view differs because the other views do not look at right verses wrong, rather how to grow and improve
• Socioemotional competence involves the ability to read others' emotions and control one's own emotions. What is known about children's ability in these areas during the early childhood years?


  involves a variety of skills, many of which are acquired during childhood. Skills include being aware of one's owns emotions, understanding of the emotions that others are showing. If young children show good socioemotional competence, they are typically liked more by teachers and peers
• What is the influence of culture on emotion regulation? Include in your answer a discussion of the emotional development of children growing up in China and in the United States.


  -Children in the US are taught to express themselves, show emotions, and celebrate academic achievements

  -Children in China is more modest and praise for others compared to yourself
• What role do parents play in children's development of self-regulation?

  -soothe infants when upset

  -help children put feelings into words

  -suggests regulatory strategies

  -distraction

  maintaining routines
• How do children learn to control and regulate emotions? How does this control affect social relationships?

  Children internalize messages taught to them from parents, and begin to self regulate independently.
• How does sociodramatic play influence self-regulation? How is play implicated in learning to cope with a chronic illness in childhood?


  -learns how to take on the role of others

  -involves cooperation and negotiation

  -play can help children cope with the diagnosis or symptoms of their chronic illness. play allows for the children to have a sense of control and empowerment over what they do and act.
• What is the intentional definition of aggression? What are the central aspects of this definition?

  Behavior that is intended to hurt or harm another person

  -issue of intent

  -issue of harming another person
• When do children first gain the ability to display aggression? What is the developmental progression of verbal vs. physical aggression in toddlers?

  Physical aggression can form as early as 18 months old, however as children grow and gain verbal skills they begin to turn towards verbal aggression rather than physical aggression
• What is relational aggression and what sex differences are typically found in this form of aggression?

  Relational aggression: harming others through attempts to disrupt their relationships (such as spreading rumors and excluding people)

  -Males are typically more physically aggressive while females are more relationally aggressive
• What evidence suggests that there are biological influences on aggression?

  -aggression is innate (evolutionary perspective)

  -males are more overtly aggressive in almost all cultures (testosterone)

  -antisocial behavior runs in families (twin and adoption studies)

  -neurobiological deficits (differences in brain)
• Describe briefly what we know about possible influences on aggression in the social and cognitive realm. In particular, be sure to describe research suggesting that a) children learn aggression through modeling, b) children's aggressive acts are rewarded, and c) that aggressive children are more likely than non-aggressive children to misinterpret cues about others' intentions.


  Social influences:

  -childrens aggression is rewarded (patterson study which showed 75% of aggressive behavior in preschoolers had positive consequences)

  -relational aggression = perceived popularity

  -children imitate aggressive behavior (bobo doll study)
• How does the type of punishment that parents use influence children's tendency to be aggressive?

  parental support: suggest strategies and acknowledge emotional experience

  
  

  consistent, non-punitive consequences: positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior

  
  

  social skills training/cognitive interventions: prosocial role models
• Define prosocial behavior. What are some particular behaviors that researchers consider to be prosocial? What are some of the factors associated with increased prosocial behavior?


  Prosocial behavior: behaviors such as sharing, helping, caregiving, and showing compassion

  
  

  Factors: empathy, feelings, sympathy
• What is meant by describing the family as a system? What are the benefits or disadvantages associated with different family structures, such as nuclear, extended, and single-parent families?

  -interdependence

  -bidirectional relationships

  -direct and indirect effects

  -dynamic and changing

  
  

  Nuclear: parents and their children

  Extended: parents and their children living with other family members in one house

  Single-Parent: less parental resources
• What are three key parenting goals shared by parents all over the world, and how do they impact parenting?

  -survival goal

  -economic goal

  -cultural goal

  
  

  (warmth and responsiveness/control and demandingness/reciprocal exchange)