IS110

• When analysing markets, a range of assumptions are made about the rationality of economic agents involved in the transactions
• The Wealth of Nations was written in 1776
• Rational


  (in classical economic theory) economic agents are able to consider the outcome of their choices and recognise the net benefits of each one
• Rational agents will select the choice which presents the highest benefits
• Consumers act rationally by


  Maximising their utility
• Producers act rationally by


  Selling goods/services in a way that maximises their profits
• Workers act rationally by


  Balancing welfare at work with consideration of both pay and benefits
• Governments act rationally by


  Placing the interests of the people they serve first in order to maximise their welfare
• Rationality in classical economic theory is a flawed assumption as people usually don't act rationally
• Marginal utility


  The additional utility (satisfaction) gained from the consumption of an additional product
• If you add up marginal utility for each unit you get total utility
• Ethics or morality poses questions about how we ought to act and how we should live
• Ethics is an inquiry into the justification of particular actions (are these actions right or wrong?), as well as a search for traits of moral character that promote human flourishing
• Recognizing ethical/moral issues


  • Is there a conflict at the personal, inter-personal, institutional, or societal level?
  • Is there a question that arises either at the level of thought or of feeling?
  • Does the question have a moral or ethical component? Why? (e.g. does it raise issues of rights, moral character, etc.)
• Beginning decision making


  • What are the relevant facts of the case?
  • Whose (or what) interests are at stake?
  • What alternative actions are available?
  • What would other persons of good judgement think of your list of alternatives?
• Ethical theories or approaches


  • Used in various different situations to provide systematic answers to ethical and moral issues
  • Like a toolkit for dealing with moral and ethical issues
• Moral Relativism


  What is morally right or wrong depends on the prevailing view in the society or culture we happen to be dealing with
• Moral Relativism is often presented as a tolerant view: 'if moral relativism is true, no one has a right to force his moral views on others'
• Arguments against Moral Relativism

  • The 'Cultural Differences' Argument: There are significant differences in moral beliefs from culture to culture and era to era, therefore there is no objective fact as to which of these beliefs is correct, morality is relative
• Idealist Approach


  • Standards of goodness, truth, and beauty do exist and can be discovered by reason and known at the deepest core of one's being
  • Which alternative is most consistent with one's own ideals of truth and goodness?
  • Is the choice consistent with one's deepest self, or just giving in to superficial attractions?
  • Is the choice consistent with the harmony and good order of the world, or does it lead to confusion and unreliability?
• Justice Approach


  • Which alternative best treats all parties in a fair, just or reasonable manner?
  • Are all treated in the same way (e.g. "equals, equally and unequals, unequally") by an action or is there favouritism or discrimination?
• Virtues Approach


  • Virtues are desirable habits or ideals which once acquired become characteristic of a person
  • Which alternative would help develop and maintain valuable traits of character (e.g. courage, compassion, honesty or integrity)?
  • Alternatively we can observe what the good person does, or ask a good person what they would do
• Natural Law Approach


  • Which action is most compatible with the nature of the human person as can be understood by human reason?
  • A more modern approach focuses on what befits human persons, rather than abstract human nature, requiring critical reflection on past and present experience and the needs of people today
  • Again, the important questions are "What sort of person should I be?" or "what is the purpose of human life / my life" rather than "What should I do?"
  • Which action is most compatible with the flourishing of human persons today as can be understood by reason, experience and the social sciences?
• Categorical Imperative


  • Which alternative would make a good general rule for all people to follow in similar situations? Would the freedom and respect due to all be respected?
  • Which alternative is treating people as ends rather than as means?
• Rights Approach


  • Which alternative best respects and protects the moral rights of persons to choose freely what they will do with their lives?
  • Which alternative treats people as objects to be manipulated; as means rather than ends?
• Utilitarian Approach


  • What benefits or harms will possible courses of action produce?
  • Which alternative would lead to the best overall consequences, the greatest happiness for the greatest number?
  • "Rule Utilitarianism" overcame some irrationalities in utilitarianism by asking if an action were to be made a general rule, would it lead to the greatest happiness for the greatest number
• Pragmatic Approach


  • Since only change exists, there are no permanent values, only present problems to be solved
  • Which action works most efficiently to solve the problem at hand?
  • Does the solution enhance social order in a democratic society?
• Existential Approach


  • We are completely free to determine our own set of values to give meaning to an otherwise absurd human existence
  • Because we are totally free, we are also fully responsible for all our actions
  • Does this action oppose forces in society which tend to undermine human freedom?
  • In this action am I exercising my freedom and accepting full responsibility for my actions?
• Common Good Approach


  • The common good is a certain state of affairs (e.g. social policies) which is used equally to everyone's advantage
  • This approach seeks to produce a desirable kind of society
  • Which alternative best promotes the kind of society which will be equally beneficial to all?
• Social Justice Approach


  • Which alternative considers most the welfare and human flourishing of those people in our world who are poor, sick, suffering, imprisoned, or in any way distressed?
  • Will any alternative only serve to increase the gap between the rich and the poor, the haves and the have-nots, the weak and the strong, the free and the imprisoned?
  • Which alternative helps one to live in solidarity with the poor, "living simply, so that others can simply live"
  • In which alternative does one's concern for the poor most clearly project the image of God in which one was made?
• Psychological Approach


  • Which alternative is most in accord with the deepest desires of one's heart/soul/self/conscience?
  • How life-giving for persons is this choice?
  • How are people being set free to be themselves?
  • How is the whole of the person (not just the rational) being respected?
  • To what extent is one personally committed to this alternative, and not just obeying laws imposed on them?
• Make a decision


  1. After considering these various ethical theories and approaches, determine which of the alternative actions would be the best

  2. What would other persons of good judgement think of the justification of the decision?
• Consider the action in retrospect

  1. Was the action - and its results for others as well as one's own ethical/moral character - the best action?

  2. What do other persons of good judgement think of the action and its results in retrospect?
• Living an ethical life

  • Did I practice any virtues today?
  • Did I do more good than harm today?
  • Did I treat people with dignity and respect today
  • Was I fair and just today?
  • Was my community better because I was in it?
• Ethical theories or approaches discussed

  • Moral Relativism
  • Idealist Approach
  • Justice Approach
  • Virtues Approach
  • Natural Law Approach
  • Categorical Imperative
  • Rights Approach
  • Utilitarian Approach
  • Pragmatic Approach
  • Existential Approach
  • Common-good Approach
  • Social Justice Approach
  • Psychological Approach
• Computing Problems

  Problems created by computers are a result of hardware and software malfunctions or intentional misuse by human beings
• Social problems created by computing problems

  • Computer crime
  • Software theft
  • Hacking
  • The creation of viruses
  • Invasions of privacy
  • Overreliance on intelligent machines
  • Workplace stress
• Ethics

  Principles of right and wrong that individuals, acting as free moral agents, use to make choices to guide their behaviors
• Information systems, computing technology and ethics

  • They raise new ethical questions because they create opportunities for intense social change, threatening existing distributions of power, money, rights, and obligations
  • They create opportunities for new kinds of crime
• Model for thinking about ethical, social, political issues

  • Society as a calm pond, IT as rock dropped in pond, creating ripples of new situations not covered by old rules
  • Social and political institutions cannot respond overnight to these ripples - it may take years to develop etiquette, expectations, laws