itp module 7

• Reflexes


  • Motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment
  • Simpler than instincts
  • Involve the activity of specific body parts and systems
  • Involve more primitive centers of CNS (spinal cord, medulla)
  • Examples: Knee-jerk, pupil contraction in bright light
• Instincts


  • Innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events
  • More complex patterns of behavior
  • Involve movement of the organism as a whole
  • Involve higher brain centers
  • Examples: Aging process, desire to survive
• Learning

  • A persisting change in human performance or performance potential as a result of the learner's interaction with the environment
  • The relatively permanent change in a person's knowledge or behavior due to experience
  • An enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience
• Forms of learning


  • Behavioral learning (Stimuli-Response)
  • Classical conditioning
  • Operant conditioning
  • Feedback/Reinforcement
• Classical conditioning


  A process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events
• Higher-order conditioning


  A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
• Extinction


  The decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus
• Spontaneous recovery


  The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
• Generalization


  The tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli
• Discrimination


  The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
• Habituation


  When we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change
• Little Albert experiment


  John B. Watson incorporates elements of classical conditioning to demonstrate how fear can be conditioned, and also showed stimulus generalization
• Classical conditioning in everyday life

  • Advertising featuring attractive models to associate with products
  • Men rating cars with models as faster, more appealing, and better designed
• Operant conditioning


  A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior, where an association is made between a behavior and a consequence
• Types of behavior


  • Respondent behaviors (automatic, reflexive)
  • Operant behaviors (under conscious control)
• Reinforcement


  Any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows
• Types of reinforcement


  • Positive reinforcement (favorable events/outcomes presented)
  • Negative reinforcement (unfavorable events/outcomes removed)
• Types of punishment


  • Positive punishment (unfavorable event/outcome presented)
  • Negative punishment (favorable event/outcome removed)
• Reinforcement schedules


  • Continuous reinforcement
  • Fixed-ratio
  • Fixed-interval
  • Variable-ratio
  • Variable-interval
• Applications of operant conditioning

  • Biofeedback training
  • Behavior modification
• Learned helplessness


  When an organism repeatedly fails to escape aversive stimuli and eventually gives up trying
• Cognitivism


  Grew in response to behaviorism, views knowledge as stored cognitively as symbols, and learning as the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful and memorable way
• Insight learning


  A form of cognitive learning where problem solving occurs through a sudden reorganization of perception
• Cognitive map


  A mental image an organism uses to navigate through a familiar environment
• Latent learning


  Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it
• Observational learning


  A form of learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others' behavior and the consequences
• Types of models in observational learning

  • Live - demonstrate a behavior in person
  • Symbolic - demonstrate behavior in books, movies, tv shows, video games, or internet sources
  • Verbal - does not perform the behavior but explains or describes the behavior
• Multiple intelligences


  Proposes that people are born with eight intelligences, enabling them to leverage strengths and develop weaknesses
• unconditioned stimulus


  the stimulus that automatically produce a reflex. (in pavlov's study this was the food
• unconditioned response


  an automatic response to the ucs a natural response that does not require conditioning for it to occur (in pavlov's study this was salivation to the food)
• conditioned stimulus


  a neutral stimulus that does not normally elicit an automatic response; only after pairing it repeatedly with the ucs . does the cs come to elicit a conditioned response (in pavlov's study this was the bell)
• Edward Thorndike placed cats in a puzzle box; they were rewarded with food (and freedom) when they solved the puzzle
• Thorndike's law of effect: behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
• Continuous reinforcement


  involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
• Fixed-ratio schedules


  are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.
• Fixed-interval schedules


  Reinforcement occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.
• Variable-ratio schedules


  are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow extinction rates.
• Variable-interval schedules


  are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.
• Biofeedback Training


  Biofeedback is a type of therapy that uses sensors attached to your body to measure key body functions. Biofeedback is intended to help you learn more about how your body works. This information may help you to develop better control over certain body functions and address health concerns.
• Behavior Modification


  Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938, 1953).