methods/methods in context/methodology/theory

• INTERPRETIVISTS AND SCIENCE

  • SOCIOLOGY IS NOT A SCIENCE
  • can't treat humans in the same way as subjects of natural science: people have agency, people make decisions as engaged in social construct of society (not puppets), behaviour isn't shaped by social forces
  • RESEARCH= should focus of collecting data high in validity by looking interactions and the meanings we attach to them- field experiments, unstructured interviews, participant observations
  • Positivists- exaggerate the idea of a scientific notion, there isn't actually a universal scientific method
  • VERSTEHEN, SUBJECTIVITY
• POSITIVISTS AND SCIENCE

  • SOCIOLOGY CAN FOLLOW SCIENTIFIC METHOD- hypodeductive method
  • this allows them to gain quantifiable data which much be high in reliability
  • prefer objective and value free research= lab experiments, official statistics, questionnaires, structured interviews, comparative data (SUICIDE)
  • believe in importance of SOCIAL FACTS- objective truths external to the individual that exerts constraints on them- DURKEIM SUICIDE
  • empirical, standardised, measurable
• SOCIOLOGY ISN'T A SCIENCE- POPPER

  • science isn't about proving hypotheses right but should be about testing until they're proved wrong- FALSIFIABLE
  • 'all swans are white' can be proved wrong if we see one black swan
  • sociology CAN be falsified by empirical research= so it is not a scientific truth
  • rejects Marxism as a psuedo-science as concepts like 'false class consciousness are too abstract to be seen and measured
• IT IS DOUBTFUL THAT IT IS A SCIENCE- KUHN

  • Paradigms- framework of assumptions= pre-science, normal science, revolutionary science (goes through paradigm shifts)
  • sociology behaves in a pre-science stage as there's no dominant perspective
  • can also refer to sociology as a 'young science' that needs to find a unifying perspective
  • X- by saying science is capable of disproving theories, implies we'll never get the truth and that science isn't as objective as we think
• SCIENCE ISN'T A SCIENCE- KAPLAN

  • scientific discovery can be haphazard, lucky, accidental, not scrutinised as carefully as it should be
  • meaning that science isn't as scientific as it seems
• SCIENCE CAN BE A SCIENCE- REALISM: SAYER AND BHASKAR

  • SOCIOLOGY CAN BE A SCIENCE- because it is made up of open and closed belief systems
  • OPEN= not all variables can be controlled, we cant make predictions
  • CLOSED= similar to lab experiments, all variables can be controlled
  • (doctors can't predict when people will become ill, so sociologists can't predict things either)(both just explain how and why existing trends have developed)
  • 'both positivists and interpretivists are using scientific approaches'
• SOCIOLOGY SHOULDN'T BE A SCIENCE- POSTMODERNISM

  • REJECT IDEA THAT SCIENCE ISN'T ABOUT COLLECTING FACTS TO DISCOVER ABSOLUTE TRUTHS ABOUT THE WORLD:
  • science is a meta-narrative= no more valid than other belief systems
  • science has created a risk society- so why would sociology want to be associated with it
  • claims of objectivity and value freedom which are copied by Positivists is fake and aiming to make themselves seem superior
• How does sociology contribute to social policy?

  • making cultural differences aware and visible
  • changing assumptions and stereotypes
  • identifying the unintended consequences of existing social policies
• factors affecting government decision to act of research

  • who the policy will affect
  • the money and cost
  • impact on religious organisations
  • the electoral popularity of the policy
• why might social policies not pass

  think tanks

  conflicting political ideologies
• social policy and theory

  • STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISTS- policy will reflect collective values of society so everyone will benefit
  • POSITIVISTS- research provides value free data on which governments can use
  • NEW RIGHT- the state should play a limited role, should be used to place responsibility on the individual
  • MARXISTS- they're produced by the ruling class to assert their hegemonic ideology
  • FEMINISTS- policies benefit men, radical fems argue that this means real change wont happen
  • POSTMODERNISTS- policies need to be updated in the context of a globalised world
• real-world examples

  1. EQUAL PAY ACT= Feminist theory, recognises women's work as being equal to men's
  2. HEALTH AND SAFETY= Marxist theory, shows the 'caring face' of capitalism
  3. ZERO TOLERANCE CRIME POLICY= Right Realist theory, disincentivises to commit crime through the harsh sentencing
• policy and sociology married

  GIDDENS AND BLAIR- 'THIRD WAY'

  • emphasised the importance of social standing and cohesion
  • detailed the need for active citizens
  • key focus on education, poverty, unemployment and citizenship
• sociology SHOULD be involved in social policy

  • RESPONSIBLE- modern sociologists like Marx and Durkheim are committed to their theory
  • NECESSARY- to access funding
  • NECESSARY- to ensure policy is based on rigorous research and the gov isn't swayed by just political ideologies
• sociology SHOULDN'T be involved in social policy

  • RESEARCHER INDEPENDENCE- is a virtue so shouldn't apply to problems in society
  • CREATES PROBLEMS- with objectivity and value freedom
  • POST MODERNISTS- sociologists are imposing their world view on others when it's no better or worse
• sociology and social policy overview

  • has some influence= varies depending on each gov
  • government is rarely influenced by radicals
  • sociological theories can act as a provider
  • those with sociological backgrounds are often key personnel in gov
  • sociologists can also act as problem identifiers not just solvers
• POSITIVISTS AND VALUE FREEDOM

  • objectivity (VF) is desirable and possible
  • can be VF is use scientific methods
  • methods can be used to stop researcher views imposing on research
  • should aim to see social facts as they are
  • not the job of sociologists to fix society
  • shouldn't worry about who employs them
• INTERPRETIVISTS AND VALUE FREEDOM

  • sociology itself can't be VF if the method doesn't allow it
  • Verstehen= empathy, the job of sociology- to understand people- so can't be fully VF and objective
  • research itself doesn't interpret 'facts' they need to be interpreted by the researcher
  • research process isn't VF- choosing what to research, getting funding, interpreting findings
  • there's always unconscious bias
• HUMANS STUDYING OTHER HUMANS, sociology's nature doesn't allow for the achievement of VF
• WEBER= can't be VF but should aim for objectivity in the process of research
• INFLUENCES

  • theoretical perspectives- marxism, feminism, POMO
  • methodological perspectives- interviews, experiments, surveys
  • demands of funding body- may be swayed by funding body
  • career trajectory- early career= they may do anything to gain credibility
• RESEARCHER'S VALUES INFLUENCING TOPIC AND METHODS

  • DURKHEIM- suicide= personal connection compelled him to do the study
  • OAKLEY- conventional family= the feminist cause
• GOULDNER

  • VF sociology is a myth, all sociologists have 'domain assumptions' which seeps into their research
• STANDPOINT SOCIOLOGISTS- non-VF make better sociologists as they see the world richly and draw on personal experiences
• COMMITTED SOCIOLOGISTS- their values are proud and important (feminism and marxism) so we shouldn't hide them
• being VF


  = enables them to avoid moral responsibility or consequences

  = enables them to avoid criticising society or taking a stand

  = supports the powerful in unequal society under pretence of being natural
• BECKER= we should side with the 'powerless underdog' to give them a voice- shouldn't push a VF viewpoint
• POSTMODERNISTS AND VF

  • sociology is no longer a unifying truth, just a number of theories guessing- SOCIOLOGY CAN'T BE VF OR OBJECTIVE
  • LYTORD= all knowledge is a social construct so relative to those making truth claims as no way of knowing whether one is 'more truth' than another
• Positivism

  Believes that social behaviour is the result of social facts not choice/free will, society has an objective reality, people are 'puppets of society'
• Positivism

  • Sociology should and can be scientific in its approach- hypo-deductive, logic of natural sciences can/should be applied to studies = social behaviour has patterns which can be measured and predicted
• Positivist research methods

  • Lab experiments
  • Official statistics
  • Structured interviews
  • Questionnaires
  • Closed-ended, fixed response, structured questions
• Positivist research methods

  Produce QUANTITATIVE DATA- RELIABILITY, REPLICABILITY, REPRESENTATIVENESS
• INTERPRETIVISM

  • BELIEVES THAT: social behaviour is the result of how people interpret their interactions with each other, people have agency and construct their own social reality by choosing to interact with others and applying meaning, society has subjective reality, people are the 'architects of society'
• INTERPRETIVISTS

  • SCIENCE: shouldn't/can't be scientific in its approach- validity underpins research process and practice, best achieved by establishing trust, try to achieve VERSTEHEN
• INTERPRETIVISTS

  • RESEARCH METHODS: participant observations, unstructured interviews, personal documents, open-ended, unstructured questions= VALIDITY, QUALITATIVE DATA
• INTERPRETIVISTS

  • AIM: to uncover the meanings social actors attach to behaviour and events
• FUNCTIONALISM- ORGANIC ANALOGY= PARSONS

  system: comprised of interdependent parts

  system needs: institutions need to meet society's needs

  functions: each part developed to function for the good of the organism
• FUNCTIONALISM- FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL SYSTEM


  VALUE CONSENSUS= socialised into a consensus on norms/values (British values)

  SOCIAL INTEGRATION= belong to a community with a common identity, experience social solidarity (BREXIT- social integration promoting British identity)

  SPECIALISED DIVISION OF LABOUR= members need to be encouraged to join the economic division of labour (specialist skills in school)
• FUNCTIONALISM- FUNCTIONAL PREREQUISITES= PARSONS


  (4 basic needs all societies have to satisfy)

  GOAL ATTAINMENT: political, setting goals and making decisions about the allocation of power

  ADAPTATION: economic, society needs to provide a good standard of living

  INTEGRATION: social harmony, education/religion/media responsible for encouraging a sense of belonging to society

  LATENY: unstated consequences of actions- PATTERN MAINTENANCE: young are socialised into shared norms and values, TENSION MANAGEMENT: tension managed by institutions to prevent disorder
• FUNCTIONALISM: SOCIAL CHANGE

  • societies undergo social change
  • Parsons- some societies based on traditional roles of PATTERN VARIABLES
  • they evolve into more complex PVs and modern societies
  • this is done through STRUCTURAL DIFFERENTIATION
  • traditional societies- rely on religion and families to carry out most functions
  • modern societies- develop new specialist institutions in response to new needs