Anatomy & physiology

• Nephron


  The working part of the Kidney
• Parts of the Nephron

  • Bowman's capsule
  • Proximal convoluted tube
  • Loop of Henle
  • Distal convoluted tube
  • Collecting duct
• Afferent arterioles


  • Transport blood to the glomerulus
• Efferent arterioles


  • Transport blood away from the glomerulus
• Proximal convoluted tubule


  • Site of selective reabsorption
• Distal convoluted tubule


  • Site of selective reabsorption
• Loop of Henle


  • Creates water and salt gradients so they can be reabsorbed
• Glomerulus


  • Site of ultrafiltration
• Bowman's capsule


  • Collects products removed from the blood
• Collecting duct


  • Transfers urine to the renal pelvis
• How the kidneys work

  1. Blood enters the kidneys via the renal artery

  2. Ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus, forcing small molecules into the Bowman's capsule

  3. Selective reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tube

  4. Osmoregulation occurs in the loop of Henle

  5. Any remaining glucose and salt can be reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tube

  6. Urine (made up of urea and water/salt) is collected in the collecting duct and travels to the renal pelvis
• The kidneys ensure the correct levels of water and salt are maintained in the body, and remove excess waste products
• Substances filtered out of the blood by the kidneys


  • Urea
  • Excess water
  • Excess salt
  • Amino acids (proteins broken down)
  • Glucose
  • Vitamins and minerals
• The kidneys perform blood filtration, water balancing, and waste removal functions
• Frontal lobe


  Responsible for thinking, memory, behaviour and movement
• Cerebral cortex


  Responsible for sight, sound, language
• Corpus callosum


  Connects the right and left hemisphere and transmits messages between the hemispheres
• Hypothalamus


  Regulates temperature, blood glucose via hormones
• Cerebellum


  Responsible for coordination, balance, body posture
• Multiple sclerosis (MS)


  Autoimmune disease where the body's immune system destroys the myelin sheath of the central nervous system cells
• Impact of MS


  • Emotional changes (e.g. mood swings)
  • Fatigue
  • Speaking, bladder and bowel problems
  • Numbness in arms and legs
• Neurological examination


  Checking for abnormalities, changes or weaknesses in vision, hand/leg strength, balance and reflexes
• MRI scan


  Can show any damage or scarring to the myelin sheath
• Lumbar puncture


  Removing a sample of spinal fluid to test for antibodies and immune cells
• Professionals involved in MS care

  • Neurologists
  • Physiotherapists
  • Occupational therapists
  • Speech and language therapists
• Treatments for MS


  • No cure, can only treat symptoms
  • Steroids used to reduce inflammation from overactive immune system
• People with MS may struggle to walk as it affects all neurons, including skeletal neurons
• More impulses = bigger movement
• MS is an autoimmune disease
• The mouth is also known as the oral or buccal cavity
• Functions of the mouth

  • Contains room for chewing
  • Tongue moves and mixes food with saliva
• Saliva


  Contains enzymes like amylase that break down starch into sugars
• Oesophagus


  Muscular tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach
• Stomach


  • Produces hydrochloric acid
  • Churns and mixes food
• Digestion in the small intestine

  1. Chemical digestion occurs

  2. More nutrients absorbed due to increased surface area
• Rectum


  Elastic chamber at the end of the colon that stores faeces before release
• Coronary heart disease is when the coronary arteries supply blood to the heart become blocked, preventing the heart muscles from contracting effectively
• Fatty build-up damages the inner lining of the coronary arteries, causing more fat to stick to the inner wall
• Atherosclerosis


  Build-up of fat in the coronary arteries due to high cholesterol levels
• Thrombosis


  Blood clot