حيوية

• Biotechnology


  Any technique that uses living organisms or substances from those organisms, to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses
• Biotechnology


  • Multidisciplinary, covering many areas: Cell and molecular biology, Microbiology, Genetics, Anatomy and physiology, Biochemistry, Engineering, Computer science, Recombinant DNA technology
• Applications of biotechnology

  • Virus-resistant crop plants and livestock, Diagnostics for detecting genetic diseases and acquired diseases, Therapies that use genes to cure diseases, Recombinant vaccines to prevent diseases, Bioremediation
• Classical biotechnology


  The development that fermentation has taken from ancient times to the present
• Classical biotechnology development

  Brewers began producing alcohol on a large scale in the early 1700s, Top fermentation, Bottom fermentation, Hansen developed brewing equipment in 1886, Brewers developed a method for measuring acid production in 1911, Increased fermentation products from 1900 to 1940, Aseptic techniques and control of nutrients, aeration, sterility, and product isolation and purification improved by the 1940s, Modern fermenter/bioreactor developed during World War II
• Classical biotechnology products


  • Glycerol, acetone, butanol, lactic acid, citric acid, yeast biomass for baker's yeast, Cortisol and sex hormones, Amino acids and primary metabolites, Enzymes and vitamins, Secondary metabolites, Antibiotics, Chemicals, hormones, pigments, Biomass for commercial and animal consumption
• Fermentation and genetic engineering

  Used in food production since the 1980s
• Biotech revolution: old meets new

  Genetically engineered organisms cultured in fermenters, Modified to produce large quantities of desirable enzymes, Enzymes extracted and purified, Used in production of milk, cheese, beer, wine, candy, vitamins, mineral supplements
• Gene


  Determines the structure of proteins
• Experiments linking genes and proteins

  Beadle and Euphrussi with fruit fly Drosophila, Beadle and Tatum with bread mold Neurospora, Yanofsky with bacterium Escherichia coli, Griffith with bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty with DNA as "transforming principle", Hershey and Chase with T2 bacteriophage, Watson and Crick determined DNA structure
• Recombinant DNA technology


  Revolutionized molecular biology by allowing scientists to cut and link different pieces of DNA, and place the new piece of DNA into a new host
• Early years of molecular biology

  Research focused on how DNA sequence relates to protein amino acid sequence, and the cell decoding process that produces a protein, DNA replication, RNA discovered as messenger between nucleus and ribosome, Genetic code determined

  
• First recombinant DNA experiments

  Berg, Boyer, Cohen, Mertz, Davis performed first recombinant DNA experiments, Mertz and Davis used EcoRI and DNA ligase to combine DNA pieces, Cohen and Boyer collaborated on using EcoRI to generate DNA fragments for insertion into plasmids, Boyer discovered gel electrophoresis technique

  
• Breaking the genetic code

  Nirenberg and Mattei made first attempt using synthetic mRNA, Nirenberg and Ochoa continued work using specific codon sequences, Nirenberg and Leder developed binding assay to determine codon-amino acid relationships

  
• Recombinant DNA technology sparked much debate, but no disasters occurred and it does not pose threat to health or environment
• Concerns about recombinant DNA technology

  • Gene therapy experiments, Animal clones, Herbicide-resistant weeds from genetically modified crops, Release of genetically engineered bacteria, Genetically engineered foods in marketplace
• Progress continues in many areas of biotechnology: Genetically modified disease, pest, and herbicide-resistant plants, Identifying disease genes, Developing new medical treatments, Molecular pharming using plants to produce pharmaceuticals
• Branches of biotechnology


  • Modern biotechnology, Classical biotechnology, Genomics, Recombinant DNA, Microbial biotech, Plant biotech, Animal biotech, Marine biotech, Immunology, Medical biotech, Forensic
• Proteins


  Large molecules required for the structure, function, and regulation of living cells
• In 2000, NIH launched Protein Structure Initiative to identify the structure of human proteins
• Branches of Biotechnology


  • Biotech
  • Genomics
  • Recombinant DNA
  • Microbial Biotech
  • Plant Biotech
  • Animal Biotech
  • Marine Biotech
  • Immunology
  • Medical Biotech
  • Forensic
  • Fermentation
  • Breeding
  • Restriction enzymology
  • Cloning
  • Microarrays/GENECHIP
  • Human Genome Project
  • Functional genomics
  • PROTEOMICS
  • CANCER RESEARCH
  • GENE THERAPY
  • THERAPEUTIC CLONING
  • STEM CELLS
  • HUMAN DEFENCE SYSTEM
  • VACCINES
  • ANTIBODIES
  • FOOD BIOTECH
  • ENZYMOLOGY
  • ANTIBIOTICS
  • FUELS
  • BIOPOLYMERS
  • AGRICULTURE
  • BIOREMEDIATION
  • TISSUE CULTURE
  • GENETICALLY MODIFIED
  • MEDICINAL
  • TRANSGENICS
  • AGRICULTURE
  • FISH BIOTECH
  • NATURAL BIOPRODUCTS
  • ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
  • CROP IMPROVEMENT
  • HIGHER YIELD
  • HIGHER RESISTANCE
  • CHEESE
  • BEER
  • WINE
  • BREAD
  • YOGHURT
  • DNA FINGER PRINTING
  • CRIMINAL PROFILING
  • CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION
• Proteins


  Large molecules that are required for the structure, function, and regulation of living cells
• NIH launched Protein Structure Initiative - Effort to identify the structure of human proteins

  2000
• Proteins


  Polymers of amino acids
• Recombinant DNA technology


  Made it possible to produce specific proteins on demand
• Proteins as Biotechnology Products

  • Enzymes - proteins that speed up chemical reactions
  • Hormones
  • Antibodies
• Making a Biotech Drug

  1. Produced through microbial fermentation or cell culture

  2. Complicated and time-consuming process

  3. Must strictly comply with FDA regulations at all stages of the procedure
• Applications of Proteins in Industry

  • Medical applications
  • Food processing
  • Textiles and leather goods
  • Detergents
  • Paper manufacturing and recycling
  • Adhesives: natural glues
  • Bioremediation: treating pollution with proteins
• Proteins


  Complex molecules built of chains of amino acids
• Hydrophilic


  Water loving
• Hydrophobic


  Water hating
• Structural Arrangement of Proteins

  • Primary structure - sequence in which amino acids are linked together
  • Secondary structure - chains of amino acids fold or twist at specific points forming new shapes by H bonds
  • Tertiary structures - secondary structures combine and are bound together (Tridimensional structure)
  • Quaternary structures - unique, globular, three-dimensional complexes built of several polypeptides

  
• The amino-acid sequence (or primary structure) of a protein predisposes it towards its native conformation or conformations, though external factors also affect

  
• In the secondary structure two regular structures were described: Alpha helices and beta sheets

  
• Protein Folding


  The structure and function of a protein depends on protein folding
• If protein is folded incorrectly, desired function of a protein is lost and a misfolded protein can be detrimental
• Several neurodegenerative and other diseases are believed to result from the accumulation of misfolded (incorrectly folded) proteins
• Prions


  Infectious proteins that induce changes in normal cell proteins, causing diseases. They induce changes in normal proteins ("mad cow" disease)
• Glycosylation


  Post-translational modification wherein carbohydrate units are added to specific locations on proteins
• More than 100 post-translational modifications occur